Their appearance depends on the fibrous composition of fabrics (shine, smoothness, sometimes color - for harsh fabrics), mechanical and physical properties(strength, extensibility, elasticity, thermal conductivity, hygroscopicity, heat resistance, etc.). The fibrous composition affects the purpose of the fabric, its technological properties, which are manifested in the processes of garment production (sliding, crumbling, thread spreading, shrinkage), the mode of wet heat treatment, as well as storage conditions.

According to the fibrous composition, fabrics are divided into cotton, linen, woolen and silk. Depending on the type of fibers contained in the warp and weft, all fabrics are also divided into four groups:

Homogeneous - consisting of fibers of the same type; for example, from cotton (calico, chintz, calico, cambric, marquise, satin, etc.), from flax (linen, matting, kolomenok), from wool (Boston, beaver, etc.), from natural silk (crepe de Chine, crepe georgette, crepe-chiffon), etc. Such fabrics are called, respectively, pure cotton, pure cotton, pure wool, etc. It is also customary to refer to homogeneous fabrics containing, in addition to the main type of fibers, up to 10% of fibers of other types. For example, fabrics containing 90% wool and 10% nitron are considered pure wool.

Heterogeneous - containing threads of different fibrous composition in the warp and weft; for example: the warp is cotton, and the weft is linen, the warp is cotton, and the weft is woolen, the warp is nylon, and the weft is made of alternating lavsan and acetate threads.

Mixed - containing both in the warp and in the weft, a mixture of fibers connected during the spinning process; for example, in the warp and weft, flax fibers mixed with lavsan, or wool fibers mixed with nitrone. This group also includes fabrics made from twisted non-uniform threads, for example, from woolen yarn, twisted with viscose threads; from a viscose-nylon spiral; made of wool yarn twisted with cotton in the warp and wool yarn with staple fiber in the weft.

Mixed-heterogeneous - fabrics in which one system of threads is uniform, and the other is mixed; for example, the warp is made of rayon silk, and the weft is made of rayon-acetate mosquito; the base is made of nylon muslin (medium twist), and the weft is made of viscose-nylon spiral.

Heterogeneous, mixed and mixed-heterogeneous fabrics are named according to the most valuable type of fibers with the prefix "semi": semi-linen, semi-woolen, semi-silk. The exception is fabrics made from cotton warp and weft from artificial threads. Such fabrics are called semi-cotton.

A laboratory method is used to determine the percentage of fibrous composition of the tissue.

A laboratory method is called a method for determining the fibrous composition, in which devices (microscopes, etc.) and chemical reagents are used. This method is highly objective. To determine the composition of tissues by a laboratory method, you need to know the structure of the fibers and their chemical properties. Microscopic examination consists in the fact that the composition of the tissue is determined by the characteristic features of the structure of the fibers. For example, wool can be distinguished by the presence of scales on the surface of the fibers; cotton - along the characteristic crimp and channel in the center; flax - along thickenings, shifts, a narrow channel in the center; viscose fiber - by the presence of longitudinal strokes, etc.

Organoleptic method - analysis of the fibrous composition of tissue using the human senses (sight, touch and smell). With the help of sight, the shine, color, transparency, smoothness, crimp and the nature of the burning of the threads are determined; with the help of touch - softness, stiffness, extensibility, elasticity (crease resistance), warmth or coolness to the touch, strength of threads in dry and wet state; with the help of smell - the smell released when burning fibers.

The organoleptic method includes the following techniques:

1. Analysis of tissue by its outward appearance; the fabric is examined from the front and back sides, its shine, color (for harsh fabrics), density, thickness, fluffiness are assessed. To determine the fluffiness, the tissue is examined at eye level.

2. Tissue analysis by touch; evaluate softness, extensibility, thermal conductivity (warm, lukewarm or cool), elasticity (crease resistance), crease. To assess the crease of the fabric, a manual test for crumpling is carried out, for this the fabric is strongly compressed in a fist, after 30 seconds it is released and the degree of crease and the nature of the formed folds are analyzed. Depending on the degree of tissue crease, the following assessment is given: strongly creased (there are a lot of non-disappearing folds and wrinkles), crease (there are a lot of non-disappearing folds and wrinkles), slightly crease (folds and wrinkles gradually disappear), non-crease (there are no folds and wrinkles).

3. Analysis of warp and weft threads by their appearance, by appearance

the torn end of the yarn or filaments, by the type of filaments at the torn end of the yarn or filaments, by the strength of the yarn or filaments in dry and wet conditions.

2. Analysis of the fabric by the nature of the combustion of the warp and weft threads.

Threads differing in color and luster are investigated separately. In determining the fibrous composition, the distinctive features of fabrics are used.

Table 1 - Distinctive features of pure-woolen, half-woolen heterogeneous and mixed fabrics.

Signs

Pure wool fabrics

Wool blend and mixed fabrics

1. Appearance of fabrics

unsharp shine, for woolen fabrics - a dense felt-like layer

Woolen fabrics with cotton have fading; with staple fibers - sharper shine, less dense felt-like layer

2. Type of fibers in the yarn

curved fibers with a slight sheen

In blended fabrics: cotton fibers - matte, fine, unwrinkled;

Artificial or synthetic fibers - less crimped, longer and shinier

3. Crumpling - tissue bridge

little wrinkle, form fine folds and wrinkles that disappear when smoothing with your hand

In woolen fabrics with plant fibers, the crease is greater, large folds are formed that do not disappear when smoothing by hand;

Woollens with lavsan or nitron have even less crease than pure wool ones; large folds are formed, which disappear when smoothing by hand.

4. Burning warp and weft threads

The blended yarn burns depending on the composition.

wool + vegetable fibers (+ 10%): weak combustion, in a black sintered ball - a glowing ember, when removed from the flame quickly goes out, the smell of burnt horn, a light bloom of gray ash on the sintered ball;

wool + vegetable fibers (25%): when removed from the flame, 1.5 - 2.0 cm of yarn burns out, then the flame goes out, the smell of burnt horn or feather, a bloom of gray ash;

wool + plant fibers (more than 25%): when removed from the flame, the entire thread burns out with the formation of a loose skeleton covered with gray ash, the smell of burnt horn or feather;

wool + lavsan: yellow flame with soot, the smell of burnt horn + specific, after burning, the skeleton of the thread remains, which is not completely ground into powder;

wool + nitron: burns more intensely, with soot, the smell of burnt horn is + specific, after burning, the skeleton of the thread remains, which is ground into powder;

wool + nylon (10%): yellow flame without soot, when removed from the flame, burning stops, the smell of burnt horn + boiled beans, the black ball formed at the end is poorly rubbed.

Equipment and materials for testing: dissecting needles, magnifiers, spirit lamps or matches, a cotton, linen, woolen, silk flap of mixed fabrics measuring at least 10 x 10 cm (based on 5 samples).

The test is carried out after studying the theoretical material on the topic of the fibrous composition of fabrics. Samples of materials are varied in composition and production. The purpose of this study is to analyze the features of changing suit fabrics used in school uniforms, using different methods taking into account the real deformation of fabrics in clothing. For the experiment, five samples of fabric were selected with different fibrous composition and weave, i.e. structure. The samples were divided into five study groups: the first group consisted of Sample 1 polyester fabrics, the second group - mixed fabric, composition which includes polyester fibers with viscose "Sample 2", in the third group of viscose fabrics "Sample 4", in the fourth group mixed fabric with wool "Sample 4" and in the fifth group pure wool fabric "Sample 5".

The organoleptic method was used for the analysis, since a qualified textile specialist must be fluent in it. Attach samples to the table face side up, with arrows indicate the directions of the warp and weft. The report is presented in the form of a table.

Method of work:

1. Determine the direction of the warp and weft, the right and wrong sides of the fabric in the samples.

2. Characterize fabric samples by their appearance: evaluate the shine of the fabric (sharp, unsharp, light pleasant, deep matte, etc.); smoothness of the surface (the surface is smooth, with fibers), etc.

3. Examine tissue samples by touch, determine the crease, elasticity of the material by hand test for crushing. To do this, crumple the sample for 30 seconds, then note the presence of folds and wrinkles and their ability to disappear. When testing a tissue sample for wrinkling in hands, depending on the degree of wrinkling, the following assessment is given to it: strongly wrinkled, wrinkled, slightly wrinkled, non-wrinkled tissue. Evaluate the softness, stiffness of the fabric, note the presence of a feeling of wool or silkiness.

4. Remove the warp and weft threads from each test sample of fabric, unwind them into component threads (if they are double); break, paying attention to the strength and type of tassel at the end of the thread (fluffy tassel at the end of the thread - probably cotton yarn; tied mass of filaments at the end - a thread of natural silk is possible; brush made of pointed fibers different lengths and thicknesses at the end - likely linen yarn; a brush of fibers flying in different directions at the end - a thread of chemical fibers is likely). Compare the dry and wet strength of the threads. If the strength decreases, the presence of artificial fibers in the sample is possible.

Examine threads that differ in color and luster separately.

Burn off the warp and weft threads. Record signs of combustion: the behavior of the filament when brought to the flame, behavior in the flame, smell during combustion, the nature of the resulting ash or cake. Enter the results in table 2, taking into account the results of all studies, draw a conclusion.

Determination of the fibrous composition using chemical reagents is based on the different solubility of fibers in different solvents and different coloring by certain substances. For example, acetate yarns can be easily distinguished from triacetate and viscose yarns using acetone: the acetate yarn dissolves in acetone, while the triacetate and viscose yarns do not dissolve. Lavsan can be distinguished from nylon with the help of formic acid: nylon dissolves in acid, and lavsan does not dissolve.

Concentrated alkali acts on nylon and lavsan differently: lavsan dissolves, but nylon does not dissolve.

Under the action of concentrated alkali on fibers of animal and plant origin, animal fibers dissolve, while plant fibers remain unchanged.

Synthetic fibers can be recognized using an express method. This method is based on the property of fibers to be dyed in different colors when they are simultaneously immersed in a dyeing bath with one indicator. The indicator is a mixture of dyes: rhodamine with a concentration of 0.3 - 0.4 g / l and cationic blue with a concentration of 0.1 - 0.2 g / l. The test sample of fabric or fibers is placed in a dye bath and treated for 2-3 minutes at boiling, followed by rinsing with cold water.

As a result of the indicator action, polyamide fibers (nylon, nylon, anide) are colored in a bright reddish-lilac color, polyacrylonitrile (nitrone) - in bright blue-blue, polyester (lavsan) - in bright light pink.

It is known that under the action of zinc chloride or iodide on fabrics made of cotton and viscose fibers, they turn bluish-violet or red-violet; fabrics made of nylon, wool, natural silk and acetate threads are dyed yellow.

There are a number of other ways to recognize fibers: by melting temperature, by equilibrium moisture content, by density, etc.

The laboratory method gives fairly accurate results, but requires the availability of appropriate instruments and chemical reagents, therefore, in practice, the fibrous composition is determined more readily organoleptic method.

Table 2 - Determination of the fibrous composition of these samples of suit fabrics

Name

Burning behavior of filaments

Solubility in chemicals

School uniform "Scotch"

Composition: 100% viscose

Synthetic heterochain fibers do not burn, but melt without a flame, forming a solidified melt.

Suit fabric Sample 2

Composition: 35% viscose 65% polyethylene

bright yellow flame, smell of burnt paper, smoldering (glowing ember), light gray ash is formed

Viscose burns quickly with a flame, completely dissolves in the copper-ammonia complex Pe forms a solidified melt

Suit fabric Sample 3

Composition: 100% polyethylene

On burning, they form a dark burl, spreading the sour smell of vinegar

Melts without flame, does not burn, forms a solidified melt

Suit fabric

Sample 4

Composition: Wool 60% PE-40%

yellow flame with soot, the smell of burnt horn + specific, after burning, the skeleton of the thread remains, which is not completely ground into powder;

The base wool burns with a rapid flame. When burning, lavsan weft forms a frozen melt

Suit fabric

Sample 5

Composition 100% wool.

Pure wool yarn is sintered in a flame, outside the flame, combustion stops, the smell of burnt horn or feathers, a black sintered ball is formed, which is ground into powder.

They burn with a small flame with the smell of burnt hair, do not dissolve in the copper-ammonia complex

The organoleptic method is subjective, but at the same time allows you to quickly and easily determine the fibrous composition of the tissue.

Textile materials and finished garments must meet the requirements of biological and chemical safety, hygroscopicity, air permeability, electrification, free formaldehyde content, color fastness.

The physicochemical properties of fabrics include shrinkage, hygroscopicity, permeability, optical properties, color strength. Methods of chemical testing of textile materials are regulated in GOST 6303-72 “Linen, semi-linen and cotton fabrics and products. Chemical test methods ", GOST 4659-72" Woolen and semi-woolen fabrics and yarns (mixed). Chemical test methods ", GOST 8837 --58" Linen, semi-linen and cotton fabrics and products. Methods for determining the viscosity of cellulose solutions ", GOST 8205 --69" Fabrics, yarn and cotton products. Mercerization norms and methods of its determination ", etc.

Shrinkage, or change in dimensions after wet and heat treatments, is a property of a fabric that is taken into account when sewing a product when it is made from the same fabric and when it is sewn from different fabrics.

Table 3 - Determination of the properties of these samples of suit fabrics.

Name

Areal density per 100 mm

Pilling capacity for 10 * 10 cm fabric

Hygroscopicity

School uniform "Scotch"

on the warp and weft up to 1.5%;

Density:

Base -305

Suit fabric

Sample 2

Density 300gr / sq.

Basis - 253

Suit fabric

Sample 3

on the warp and weft up to 1.5%;

Density 480gr / sq.

Base -704

Suit fabric

Sample 4

on the basis up to 3.5%, on the weft up to 2%;

Density: 310gr / sq.m

Basis - 275

Suit fabric

Sample 5

basis up to 5%, for weft up to 2%

Density:

340 gr / sq.m

Base -396

Table 2 shows the results of testing the properties of these suit fabrics, which determine their ergonomics in order to develop recommendations. The analysis of the features of the deformation of fabrics used in school uniforms, taking into account the actual shrinkage of fabrics in clothes, has been carried out. To determine the shrinkage properties of the investigated fabrics, both standard and original methods were used.

Climatic conditions for testing - according to GOST 10681-75 (temperature 19 ° C, relative humidity 67%).

Normative documentation used during testing:

GOST 3811-72 "Textile materials. Nonwoven fabrics. Methods for determining linear dimensions, linear and surface densities".

GOST 12023-2003 "Textile materials and textile products. Method for determining thickness".

GOST 12088-77 "Textile materials and products from them. Method for determining air permeability".

GOST 30157.0-95. Determination of shrinkage after wet treatments is carried out in accordance with the current standard.

An elementary test, depending on the type of canvas, is a square or rectangle with the corresponding dimensions. The number of elementary samples is determined for different types of canvases in accordance with the table.

From each selected spot sample, elemental samples are cut out according to the template. The template is placed on the spot sample parallel to the warp threads or with a looped column at a distance of at least 75 mm. from the edge of the canvas, outline its contours, cut out an elementary sample and indicate the direction of the warp and weft (length and width).

An elementary sample is placed on a smooth surface and dots are applied through the hole of the template. At the marked points, control marks are applied with indelible paint or thread stitches 15 - 20 mm long, the ends of which are tied without tightening the material.

On elementary samples marked and maintained in optimal climatic conditions, the distance between the marks in the direction of the warp and weft (length and width) is measured with a ruler with an error of no more than 1 mm.

The maximum permissible values ​​of the shrinkage of textile fabrics are regulated by standards. Fabrics from all types of yarns and filaments, except for textured ones, are subdivided (GOST 11207- 65) into three groups according to the amount of shrinkage;

practically non-shrinking fabrics on the warp - 1.5%, on the weft - 1.5%;

low-shrink fabrics - on the basis - 3.5%, on the weft - 2.0%;

shrinkage fabrics - on the warp - 5.0%, on the weft - 2.4%

For woolen and semi-woolen fabrics of the 2nd and 3rd groups, these norms are increased by 1.5% for the weft.

Method of work:

To carry out the test, use apparatus, an automatic household washing machine, to shake up the liquid for hand wash, a small-sized centrifuge for wringing out linen, drying cabinet, electric household iron weighing 1.5-2.5 kg. With a thermostat, detergent (laundry soap, soda ash, synthetic detergent), organic solvent for dry cleaning - perchlorethylene, white spirit., Unapplied cloth with a surface density of 100-200 g / m2, size 400x800 mm., Bags made of unpainted nylon fabric with sides up to 50 mm in size, steel balls with a diameter of 3 -6 mm.

The tests are carried out according to the standard, which does not apply to knitted fabrics produced with the "pleated" or "corrugation" effect, on patterned embossed fabrics "corrugation", on fabrics made of textured elastic thread, fabrics for technical and special purposes, except for linen and half-linen ...

Prepared elementary samples are soaked in a bath in one of the modes. To prevent elementary samples from floating, you can put a stainless steel grate on them. After the expiration of the soaking period, carefully turn all samples so that the first sample is on top, and the rest - sequentially with an interval of 5 minutes.

Elementary samples are washed according to standard modes, then the samples are dried on a frame in a drying chamber.

When determining shrinkage from dry cleaning, prepared samples are dry cleaned in an organic solvent according to standard modes, observing safety rules. Drying of samples is carried out at room temperature.

Processing of results. Calculate the arithmetic mean of the distance between marks before and after wet processing (dry cleaning), separately in the warp and weft directions.

The change in the size of the shrinkage after wet processing (or dry cleaning) in the direction of the warp and weft is calculated by the formula

Y + 100 (L -L) / L (11)

Results are rounded to the first decimal place.

After damp heat treatment using an ironing device, the calculated shrinkage value must be multiplied by a correction factor of 1.1.

A manual crush test is carried out. The fabric is tightly clenched in a fist. After 30 s, release and smooth by hand. Analyze the degree of crease and the nature of the formed folds.

The warp and weft threads are pulled out of the sample. Consider separately the warp and weft threads, compare their appearance. Both threads are untwisted, each of the constituent fibers is evaluated in terms of length, thickness, color, gloss, crimp.

Each of the investigated threads is cut, examined and the nature of the break is assessed.

Pilling characterizes the ability of fabrics during use or during processing to form small balls (pills) on the surface from rolled ends and individual sections of fibers.

In wool products, pilling may appear in the initial period of their wear, but then the balls, having reached a certain size, disappear from the surface of the material. In other products, for example, those made using chemical fibers (especially synthetic ones), the pilling becomes persistent and can deteriorate the appearance of the products so much that they become unusable. Since man-made fibers are now widely used in a mixture with natural ones, pilling capacity is a mandatory indicator that should be standardized in the standards for fabrics of various fibrous composition and purpose.

The process of pilling formation on tissues can be divided into three stages:

1) the formation, due to slight friction, of the mossiness of the fabric (pulling out to the surface and raising individual sections of fibers that are weakly fixed in the structure of threads and fabric);

2) entanglement of the protruding upper sections of the fibers into dense lumps of various shapes, which are held on the surface of the fabric on a "leg" consisting of several fibers;

3) destruction of the fibers holding the pills due to their repeated deformation, removal of pills from the surface of the fabric.

Figure 2 - The process of pill formation

If pills are formed quickly, but then are easily removed from the surface of the material, then the appearance of products from pilling can be considered practically not deteriorating. But when synthetic fibers are used in the mixture, which have a high resistance to repeated deformations, the third of the above stages becomes long-term, and in some cases permanent (the removal of individual pills is compensated by the formation of new ones). In this case, we have a stable pilling. Pilling of fabrics depends on the fibrous composition of the material, the geometric and mechanical properties of the fibers, the structure of the threads and fabric. The most stable pilling properties are fabrics, in the production of which polyamide (nylon) or polyester (lavsan) fibers are used in the mixture. These fibers usually have a smooth surface, high elongation and strength, and high resistance to repeated deformations. Due to these properties, the fibers quickly come out to the surface of the fabric, which leads to the formation of pills and a very long retention of them on the surface of the fabric. On the contrary, fibers with low strength and low resistance to repeated deformations (for example, acrylonitrile - nitron) give, as a rule, weak pilling. The thickness and shape of the cross-section of the fibers have a significant effect on pilling properties. Thinner, smoother fibers are more prone to pilling than thicker fibers with an uneven surface. And here, in the final analysis, the different ability of the fibers to come out to the surface of the fabric and entanglement (the stiffer fibers have a lower tendency to entanglement) affects. To reduce pilling, profiled synthetic fibers are produced, which have a cross-section in the form of a rectangle, triangle, star, etc.

The structure of the yarn and fabric in order to reduce pilling should provide a strong and reliable fixing of the fibers. Therefore, with an increase in twist, a decrease in the length of overlaps and an increase in the filling indices, the pilling capacity of fabrics decreases. Finally, a decrease in pilling or its complete elimination can be achieved as a result of special treatments of fabrics (for example, "heat-fixing fabrics from synthetic fibers.) Methods for determining pilling properties are based on simulating light abrasive effects of the fabric surface, leading to the formation of mossiness and the formation of pills, and then on calculating the maximum number of pills on a certain area of ​​the test sample Pilling of silk and semi-silk fabrics made of yarn and chemical threads, as well as mixed cotton fabrics (with synthetic fibers) is determined using the Pillingmstr device in accordance with GOST 14326-73.

Method of work:

From each tissue sample, five test circles with a diameter of 10 cm and one abrasive wheel with a diameter of 24 cm are cut. switched to one of two types of movement: swinging and circular. The upper holder is under load, which provides the required abrasive pressure on the sample. The load is selected depending on the stiffness of the fabric, which is determined on a special device used to thread the test circles into the lower holder.

The tests are carried out in two stages: the first assumes the formation of hairiness, the second - the formation of pills.

Hairiness is formed under the following parameters of the device operation: the radius of the circle of movement of the lower holder is 50 mm; the movement of the lower holder is rocking; load of the upper holder on the lower 2 kgf; specific pressure on the tested part of the tissue 200 rc / cm2; the number of cycles is 300. After - 300 cycles of swinging the lower holder, the test circles are refilled in such a way that each subsequent sample is subjected to friction at a new abrasive site.

Pillies are formed under the following parameters of the device operation: the radius of the circle of movement of the lower holder is 3 mm; movement of the lower holder - along the circumference in one direction; the load of the upper holder on the lower one is 100 gf; the specific pressure on the tested part of the fabric is 100 gf / cm2. After 100, 300, 600, 1000, 1500 and 2000 cycles and then every 500 cycles the device is stopped, the upper holder is raised and the number of pills is counted on the lower holder on the tissue (over an area of ​​10 cm2) using a magnifying glass and a preparation needle. In this case, the fabric is illuminated with a beam of light directed obliquely from the illuminator. The tests are carried out until the number of pills begins to decrease or remains unchanged. For each given number of pilling cycles, find the arithmetic mean number of pills for all samples. For the final result of tissue pilling, take the maximum number of pills from the average test results, determined to the nearest 0.1 and rounded to the nearest whole.

Most silk fabrics, for example, dress and suit fabrics in accordance with GOST 5067 --78, lining fabrics in accordance with GOST 20272 --74, etc., are classified as non-pilling, especially fabrics with the State Quality Mark. -77 on the device PLT - 2.

A test strip of fabric measuring 40X200 mm is fixed on the rubber base of the table 4 and tension weights (500 gf) are suspended from both ends. Abrasive 7 - a 40x80 mm strip of test fabric - is loaded into a carriage that reciprocates with a frequency of 87.5 cycles per minute. After 2500, 3000, 3500, etc. cycles, i.e. every 500 cycles, the device is stopped, the test strip is removed and the number of pills on it is counted on an area of ​​about 24 cm2. For testing, five test strips and five abrasive strips are cut from one sample along the base. For each predetermined number of cycles for all test strips, calculate the arithmetic mean of the number of pills. The maximum value of the average values ​​is taken as the final result of tissue pilling.

The pilling capacity of pure-woolen and semi-woolen fabrics is found according to GOST 12249 --66 on a TI - 1 device, with which the resistance of these fabrics to abrasion is also determined. Six test circles with a diameter of 80 mm are cut from the sample. Abrasive - gray cloth. Operation parameters of the device: air pressure in the pneumatic system 20_2 mm Hg. Art., head rotation frequency 100 rpm. Every 100 cycles, using a special template, count the number of pills on an area of ​​9 cm2. The tests are terminated when the number of pills, having reached the maximum value, begins to decrease over the next 400 cycles.

If, after 500 cycles from the beginning of abrasion, there are no pills on the samples, then the tests are stopped and the tissue is assessed as non-pilling.

According to the test results, the pilling properties of fabrics and the stability of the pills are evaluated. The pilling capacity of the fabric is taken as the maximum of the average values ​​of the number of pills per 1 cm2.

All-woolen and half-woolen suit fabrics should not be pilling (GOST 15625-70), especially those that have been awarded the State Quality Mark. Half-woolen fabrics for boys' school uniforms, according to GOST 21231 --75, may have weak pilling; similar fabrics, but with the State Quality Mark, should not be pilled.

The structure of textile materials is determined by the interweaving of warp and weft threads. The appearance, properties and purpose of textile materials depend mainly on the structure of the material. One of the indicators characterizing the structure of the material is density, the second is their interweaving. The density of the material is characterized by the number of warp or weft threads per 100 mm of the length or width of the fabric. If the warp and weft density differ from each other, then the material is considered uneven in density, and vice versa, the material is considered uniform in density if the warp density is equal to the weft density. Typically, in fabrics, the warp density is greater than the weft density. But, in some fabrics (satin, poplin) it is the other way around. In addition, the fineness and thickness of the threads in the fabric are important. If the fabric contains threads with a high linear density, then the air permeability of the material decreases, and the indicators of strength, stiffness and abrasion resistance increase.

When analyzing the results obtained, the density of the threads of suiting fabrics where 50% of the main threads are woolen fibers + 50% of the weft threads from polyester on the warp is on average 300, on the weft - 200, the surface density is on average about 361.7 g / m2, the density threads of 100% woolen fibers on the warp - 396, on the weft - 251, surface density - 340g / m2. Strength and stiffness indicators also characterize the quality properties of suit fabrics.

The greatest force that a material can withstand at the moment of rupture is called breaking load. It is determined directly on the scale of the tensile testing machine at the moment of material rupture and characterizes the strength of the material. The strength of the material depends on the fibrous composition, structure and linear density of the threads of the material, on the weaving of threads, density and on the type of finish. If the linear density of the threads are thicker and denser, the material will be stronger. During the printing, finishing and finishing processes, the strength of the material increases, with bleaching and dyeing, the strength decreases.

According to the comparative results obtained, for suit fabrics from 50% woolen fabrics on the basis + 50% polyester fibers on the weft relative to suit fabrics from 100% woolen fabrics the strength on the basis is 0.3%, on the weft - by 32.1%, elongation at a break along the warp - by 23.9%, at a weft - by 49.4%. It can be seen from this that suit fabrics made from 100% woolen threads are mechanically higher than suit fabrics made from 50% woolen fabrics on a warp + 50% polyester fibers on a weft.

Crease resistance, breathability, abrasion resistance and thermal conductivity are also considered one of the main indicators of suit fabrics. Abrasion of suiting fabrics occurs as a result of friction. The abrasion resistance of materials depends on the fibrous composition and surface structure. Basically, abrasion (friction) affects the ends of the fibers protruding onto the surface of the material. Initially, the fibers located on the folds of the material are subjected to abrasion. The surface of the fibers is damaged in some places, and it is in these places that the fiber breaks. Accordingly, the yarn obtained from such fibers breaks off in thinned places. First, the ends of the fibers located at the folds of the products are subjected to abrasion.

Hygroscopicity is determined by the ratio of the mass of water in the material after prolonged exposure at a relative humidity of 100% to the mass of absolutely dry material. To measure the hygroscopicity of fabrics (GOST 3816 --61), three strips with dimensions of 50XX200 mm are cut from each sample. Each strip is placed in a weighing bottle and placed in a desiccator for 4 hours, in which the relative humidity of the air is preset to 100%. Then the weighing bottles are removed, weighed and placed in an oven, where the test strips are dried to constant weight. The hygroscopicity is calculated by the formula (24) with an accuracy of 0.01% and rounded up to 0.1%. Moisture yield characterizes the ability of a material, kept for a long time at a relative humidity of 100%, to give off moisture at zero relative humidity.

The air permeability of suit materials is estimated by the coefficient of air permeability Bp, dm3 / (m2-s), which shows how much air passes through a unit area of ​​the material per unit time at a constant pressure drop on both sides of the sample.

As a result of the impact of bending and compression deformation, the material is crushed and non-disappearing folds are formed. The interchangeability of textile materials depends on the fibrous composition, on the thickness (linear density) of the threads, on the type of weaving and bleaching, and on the density. Changeability is one of the negative properties of textile materials and spoils the appearance of the product. Easily creased materials are not durable, because in places where creases and creases are formed, they wear out faster.

When a material is exposed to thermal energy, several properties of textile materials are manifested, such as thermal conductivity, heat absorption, the ability to change or retain their properties under the influence of heat.

These properties are of great importance in wet-heat treatments of weaving, during operation. finished products in a variety of climatic conditions and, mainly, when designing clothing with thermal insulation properties.

The air permeability of fabrics is determined in accordance with GOST 12088 --77 on devices VPTM.2, ATL - 2 or UPV - 2. The last of these devices works according to the scheme. The tests are carried out under the following conditions: pressure drop 5 mm of water. Art .; the area of ​​the material through which air is passed, 20 cm2; time 50 s; the number of tests (in different places of the sample along the diagonal) is equal to 10 for one sample. It is allowed to test directly on pieces of fabric in different places. The arithmetic mean of the primary data, rounded to 0.1 dm3 / (m2 - s), is taken as the final result.

The consumer properties of fabrics can be conditionally divided into the following groups: geometric; properties that affect the life of the fabric; hygienic; aesthetic.

Geometric properties include: length, width and thickness of fabrics.

The width of fabrics, different in raw material composition and purpose, ranges from 40 to 250 cm. It is measured in three places at approximately the same distance from each other. The arithmetic mean of three measurements, calculated to the nearest 0.1 cm and rounded to 1.0 cm, is taken as the width of the fabric in a piece.

The thickness of the fabric is taken into account when preparing the flooring (folded in several layers of fabric), along which the fabric is cut. Depends mainly on the thickness of the threads used, the type of weaving and finishing. In turn, the thickness affects such properties of the fabric as heat-shielding, steam, air permeability, etc.

Properties affecting the service life of the fabric are especially important for linen, lining, furniture fabrics, for work clothes, etc. They are also of great importance for the range of clothing fabrics.

The properties that affect the life of the fabric include the following:

Tensile strength is one of the main indicators that determine the service life of a product, although the product is not subject to direct rupture during operation. This indicator is characterized by breaking load (Pp) - the greatest force that a test strip of fabric can withstand when it is stretched to rupture. Measured in N (Newtons).

The stretchiness of the fabric and the stability of the products are characterized by the elongation of the fabric at break.

Abrasion resistance is one of the main properties by which the wear resistance of a fabric can be predicted. Determine the abrasion resistance of the fabric along the plane (lining, linen), or along the folds (shirts, suits, coats), or only pile (pile fabrics). This indicator is assessed by the number of cycles (revolutions) of the device until the complete destruction of the tissue or abrasion of its individual threads.

Light fastness This property is especially important for assessing the quality of fabrics exposed to prolonged exposure to light. Evaluate fabrics for the loss of strength of test strips after exposure to light for a specified time.

Hygienic properties are essential for almost all clothing and linen fabrics. For linen, summer dress, blouse, shirt fabrics, hygroscopicity, vapor and air permeability are more important, for winter - heat-shielding properties, for raincoats - water resistance.

Hygroscopicity - the property of a fabric to absorb and release water vapor from the surrounding air environment. The more moisture is absorbed by the fabric, the more hygroscopic it is. This indicator is determined by the mass of absorbed moisture relative to the mass of dry tissue and is expressed as a percentage.

Vapor permeability is the ability of a fabric to transmit water vapor (sweat), air, sunlight, etc. When assessing the quality of fabrics, indicators such as air and vapor permeability are taken into account. These properties are important for shirts, blouses, dresses and others, especially those used in the summer, fabrics, as well as for all fabrics of the children's range.

Water resistance is the ability of a fabric to resist the penetration of water through it. This property is especially important for assessing the quality of raincoat fabrics. To make raincoat fabrics waterproof, they are subjected to a waterproof or water-repellent finish.

Heat-shielding properties are the ability of a fabric to protect the human body from the adverse effects of low ambient temperatures. If the fabric in the product does not retain heat, then the temperature in the underwear space will drop. Based on this, the heat-shielding properties are assessed by the temperature drop when the heat flow passes through the tissue sample.

Electrification - the ability of a fabric to form and store static electricity. It was found that during electrification as a result of friction, positive or negative charges (of different polarity) can arise. Positive charges are not perceptible for the human body, and the negative ones, which are inherent in synthetic tissues, have an adverse effect on a person.

The mass (surface density) of the tissue affects human fatigue. And it is no coincidence that in last years Light winter clothing made of quilted fabrics with insulating material is very popular.

The mass of the fabric affects the wear resistance, heat-shielding and other properties.

Aesthetic properties are of great importance. Their role is great for all household fabrics without exception. When choosing a fabric, the buyer first of all pays attention to its appearance.

Such aesthetic properties as color fastness, crease resistance, rigidity, drapeability, spreadability, pilling ability are determined by laboratory methods, and artistic and coloristic design, fabric structure and its final finishing are determined only visually (visually).

Color fastness is the ability of a fabric to retain color under various influences (light, washing and ironing, friction, sweat, etc.). When assessing the quality of the fabric, the color fastness is determined to those influences to which the product is exposed during operation. This indicator is estimated in points according to the degree of lightening of the initial color of the fabric and according to the degree of coloring of the white material. In this case, 1 point means low, and 5 points - a high degree of color fastness. Depending on the degree of color fastness, fabrics are subdivided into three groups: ordinary - "OK", durable - "PC" and especially durable colors - "OPK".

Crease resistance is the property of a fabric to resist the formation of folds and wrinkles and to restore its original shape after crushing.

Drapery - the ability of a fabric in a freely suspended state to be located in folds of various shapes.

Spreadability is a property of the fabric, which manifests itself in the displacement of the threads under the influence of various loads during the operation of the product. Spreadability is a property that is undesirable for the fabric and negatively affects the appearance of the product.

Pilling - the tendency of a fabric to form pills on its surface as a result of various abrasive effects when wearing a product. Pillies are rolled fibers in the form of balls, braids of various shapes and sizes. As well as expandability, this property manifests itself only during the operation of the product and negatively affects its appearance.

Assessment of the quality level of fabrics. Assessment of the level of product quality includes:

assessment of artistic and aesthetic properties;

assessment of defects in appearance;

assessment of physical and mechanical properties;

assessment of chemical properties.

Physicomechanical and chemical methods are assessed by laboratory methods.

The assessment of the quality level for the presence of defects in appearance is carried out by examining the fabric from the front side on a rejection table or a forging machine. Defects in the appearance of fabrics occur at various stages of their production and are caused by defects in raw materials and violations of technological processes of spinning, weaving and finishing.

Distinguish between common and local defects. A widespread defect is present along the entire length of the tissues, and local defect is present in a limited area.

Gross local blemishes in pieces of fabric destined for trade organizations are not allowed. These include: holes, under-blinds, spots larger than 2 cm, etc. These defects are cut out at a textile company. If the size of the defect does not exceed 2 cm, the tissue is cut at the site of the defect.

Clothing serves a person to protect against the adverse effects of the external environment, protects the surface of the skin from mechanical damage and pollution. With the help of clothing, an artificial suitable microclimate is created around the body, significantly different from the climate of the external environment. Due to this, clothing significantly reduces heat loss and the body, helps maintain a constant body temperature, facilitates the thermoregulatory function of the skin, and provides gas exchange processes through the skin.

It is very important for parents to know that a modern school uniform must meet all hygienic requirements, but at the same time be stylish, diverse and fashionable. The ergonomically perfect (comfortable for the child in statics and dynamics) school uniform allows you to shape the posture of the child's figure and is designed to provide dynamic comfort.

The main requirement for a school uniform is its rationality. It should, first of all, provide the child with a sense of comfort and a favorable microclimate. Aesthetic requirements to school uniforms, although they are high, remain in second place. When choosing a school uniform for children, parents should pay attention not only to its appearance. Thermal properties, comfort of cut, lightness should be put in the first place. Clothing should not restrict the movement of the child, disrupt the physiological functions of the skin and the removal of metabolic products from its surface. The fabrics from which the school uniform is sewn should be breathable, hygroscopic, and should not lose these positive qualities and attractive appearance after repeated washing and ironing.

The interaction between the child's skin and the fabrics of school clothes is determined by the hygienic properties of the fabric: thickness, weight, air and vapor permeability, hygroscopicity, moisture capacity, hydro- and lipophilicity, hydrophobicity, and thermal conductivity. Consequently, the hygienic properties of the school uniform are very important for the thermal comfort and well-being of the child. The requirements for the composition of the fabric from which it is sewn are more stringent, because the child wears these school clothes for a significant time of the day, the student spends in school uniform (5-6 hours, taking into account the extended day to 8-9 hours). During the day, about 4.5 liters of carbon dioxide are released through the skin surface. The rise in air temperature and intense physical labor increase gas exchange through the skin several times, bringing it to 10% of pulmonary gas exchange. Scientific research has proved that when the content of the underwear space is more than 0.07% of carbon dioxide, gas exchange through the skin, and, consequently, the well-being of the child deteriorates. Therefore, the school uniform must provide sufficient ventilation of the clothing space, which in priority depends on the material from which the school uniform is sewn.

Parents sometimes look only at the price of clothes, and not at the composition of the fabric, and buy what the children should not wear. Usual baby suit can be sewn from fabric, 67% consisting of chemical fibers. You can dress in such a suit for a holiday, but in no case should you wear it at school.

Among those fabrics that are still indispensable in the manufacture of certain types of children's clothing from the standpoint of hygienic properties, are, first of all, lined cotton fabrics, flannel, bumazeye and others.

The school uniform, like any other type of children's clothing, must comply with the hygiene standards, which are set out in the sanitary and epidemiological rules (SanPiN) 2.4.7 / 1.1.1286-03 "Hygienic requirements for clothing for children, adolescents and adults." SanPiNs are aimed at providing children and adolescents with safe products for health and compliance with their requirements is mandatory for citizens, individual entrepreneurs and legal entities involved in the production and (or) sale of clothing.

A sanitary and epidemiological conclusion must be obtained for the clothes for children and adolescents (as well as for the materials used for its manufacture), and when placing an order for a school uniform, the head of an educational institution must receive a copy of this conclusion from the manufacturer.

In order to prevent adverse effects on human health, the SanPiN standardizes the main indicators characterizing the properties of clothing:

Organoleptic (smell);

Physical and hygienic: hygroscopicity (characterizes the feature of tissues to absorb water vapor and helps to remove sweat from the skin surface), air permeability (the ability of materials to pass air, i.e. ventilate), electrification;

Sanitary-chemical (migration from tissue to air or water chemical substances and heavy metal salts released from dyes);

Toxicological and hygienic (determine the level of migration of chemicals.

The degree of safety of products is determined by hygienic classification, where the main classifying elements are the area of ​​direct contact with the skin, the age of the user and the duration of continuous wear.

Since clothing must correspond to meteorological conditions, it is necessary to provide for the possibility of combining types of clothing that are different in their physical and hygienic characteristics: dress-blouse, with good high air permeability; suit, which has a large thickness of fabric and has a greater heat-shielding ability, and others.

Due to the imperfection of the mechanism of thermoregulation of children, it is recommended to include in the element of school uniform clothing that easily absorbs sweat fluid with the possibility of frequent (if possible daily) replacement of this part of clothing (blouse, turtleneck, shirt).

According to the official hygiene requirements for school clothes, “synthetic textile materials for school uniforms are age groups should not exceed 30-35% in blouse and shirt assortment and 55% in costume assortment ”. Also, it does not hurt to pay attention to the lining of jackets or skirts, sometimes the quality of a suit, which is quite decent at first glance, is canceled out by the lining of 100% polyester.

Table 4 shows the significance of the requirements for costume materials, depending on their purpose.

Table 4 - Significance of requirements for costume materials

Appointment

Hygienic

Wear resistance

Aesthetic

Economic

Design and technological

Weekend

Everyday:

male, female

Sports

Departmental

Special

Important properties of suiting fabrics are:

Crease resistance;

Pilling resistance;

Low pollution;

Low shrinkage;

Ability to shape;

Form stability;

The main physical and mechanical properties of fabrics determine their quality, purpose, processing and operating conditions. The standard indicators of the physical and mechanical properties of tissues are shown in Table 5.

Table 5 - Standard indicators of properties of suit fabrics

Material properties

Units

Indicator value

Surface density:

Thickness: for light suits for warm suits

Conditioning humidity Wк (hygroscopicity)

Breathability: for warm for lungs

Vapor permeability

not less than 40

Thermal conductivity coefficient (for winter)

Abrasion resistance

no more than 2

Crease resistance

not less than 90

Strength of thread spreading: warp along weft

Shatter resistance

To improve the properties of woolen fabrics, they are produced with the addition of chemical fibers: 30-35% polyester and PAN fibers increase the dimensional stability of fabrics;

40% polyester fibers reduce peeling; the addition of 3-3% nylon and 40% lavsan increases wear resistance. The wear resistance of fabrics can be increased by using highly twisted yarns in the manufacture of the fabric.

Promising fabrics for women's suits are pure-woolen fabrics with jacquard two-color patterns, multicolor tweeds, flannel, double-sided fabrics with a contrasting solution of the sides (by color, color, fiber), multicolored fabrics with a mosaic surface effect, fabrics with a surface contraction effect obtained by nesting multi-shrink fibers. For men's suits of classical character, pure-woolen worsted fabrics with soft ink, thin light mixed fabrics with weaving patterns "chevron" (herringbone) and shang-jean effect, satin weave fabrics, tweeds, fine jacquard fabrics, fabrics with very dry ink are promising.

Lining materials form the inside of the garment and protect it from wear and tear. During operation, the lining materials are subject to intense friction. They must meet the requirements of reliability - be durable and wear-resistant, ergonomic requirements, providing comfort when wearing, aesthetic, i.e. to have a good appearance, technological requirements - not to cause difficulties during technological processing.

Table 6 - Purpose of lining materials

Purpose of lining materials

For dimensional stability

To protect the slices from stretching

Windproof and insulating

Elasticity

Rigidity;

Ability to

shaping and fixing

Good hygiene

properties;

Low creasing;

Good wettability.

Abrasion resistance;

Resistance to

multiple bends;

Chemical resistance

Low elongation;

Rigidity and elasticity;

Good hygiene

properties;

Shrinkage compliance

main fabric

breathability;

Good hygroscopicity

and vapor permeability;

Ease;

Wear resistance

Lining materials must have the following properties:

Be light;

Have a smooth surface to ensure the comfort of the garment;

Be resistant to abrasion;

The paint must be resistant to dry and wet friction, perspiration, WTO and other influences;

Do not cause difficulties in the process of technological processing;

Not to have great shedding and spreading of threads in the seams;

Do not cause allergies;

Have good hygiene properties;

Have little crease;

Should not be electrified.

Lining fabrics are divided into: light - up to 90 g / m2; medium - up to 110 g / m2; heavy - 111 g / m2 and more

When selecting lining materials, it is necessary to take into account the areal density of the base material. The correspondence of the areal density of the base and lining materials is given in table 5

Table 7 - Standard conformity of the surface density of the base and lining materials, g / m2

It is unlikely that any of the available lining materials can have all these properties in combination. But when choosing lining materials, the most important properties should be taken into account based on the purpose of the clothing and operating conditions. Different types of clothing have different intensity of use. For example, for men's casual suits, wear resistance should be the highest, because these clothes are worn for a long time. For children's clothing, the lining materials must have good hygiene properties. For lining materials used in the manufacture of smart clothes, hygiene requirements are not as important as aesthetic ones. These fabrics must also be technological. When choosing backing materials, it is very important that the properties of the backing materials match those of the base material. They must have the same shrinkage, otherwise, after washing, large shrinkage of the lining or base fabric can lead to deformation of the garment.

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Introduction

fiber thread

Fabric is a textile product, measured by an appropriate measure (length, width, area), formed on a loom by weaving mutually perpendicular systems of threads. The global economic crisis had a great impact on the development of the textile industry, many companies had to leave the market due to lack of funds and modern material and technical base. The crisis has passed, and the development of the textile industry has received a new round. Companies began to actively introduce new technologies in the production of fabrics that can most fully satisfy the needs of customers. Now on the Russian market there is a large number of companies offering a wide assortment of fabrics that meet the tastes of the most demanding customers. The modern textile market offers an endless variety of options in which you can combine certain materials and create interiors of different styles - from classic to postmodernism. Modern trends are determined, first of all, by new technologies for the manufacture of fabrics: the combination of natural fibers with synthetic; etching the pattern with acid, as a result of which, for example, linen fabric with inserts of transparent organza or metallized mesh is obtained; the use of non-woven materials such as felt or those resembling transparent multi-ply paper. The decor on the fabrics has become quite unusual. Increasingly, manual work is imitated: rhinestones are sewn onto tulle or mesh, all kinds of light, airy leaves, squares and rings, bows, tassels, metal threads creating an arbitrary pattern, etc.

The purpose of my work is analysis of a tissue sample.

Tasks:

1. to consider the features of the tissue sample;

2. draw conclusions on the written examination paper on the basis of the material analyzed in the work.

1. Determination of the fibrous composition of tissue

According to the fibrous composition of the fabric, there are:

1. Ohomogeneous- fabrics that contain one type of fiber or thread. Homogeneous fabrics are cotton, clean, etc.

2. Mixed e - fabrics containing various fibers in the warp and weft, connected in the spinning process.

3. Heterogeneouse - fabrics in which the warp and weft are composed of different types of fibers. For example, the base of the fabric is cotton, and the weft is linen.

Methods for determining the fibrous composition of tissue

Organoleptic is called a method in which the fibrous composition of tissues is established using the senses - vision, smell, touch.

Evaluate the appearance of the fabric, its wrinkle, the nature of the yarn or thread breakage, the nature of the burning of the warp and weft threads, the smell when burning the warp and weft threads, the residue after the combustion of the threads.

Carefully examine the fabric from the front and back sides, paying attention to its color, shine, fluffiness, thickness and density. A manual crush test is carried out. The fabric is tightly clenched in a fist. After 30 seconds, release and smooth by hand. Analyze the degree of crease and the nature of the formed folds. The warp and weft threads are pulled out of the sample. Consider separately the warp and weft threads, compare their appearance. The threads are untwisted and evaluated for length, thickness, color, gloss, crimp. Each of the investigated threads is cut and the nature of the break is assessed. Set fire to the thread and observe the nature of the combustion. Evaluate the color of the flame, the presence of soot, odor, combustion in the flame and outside the flame, melting, examine the residue after compression.

Laboratory is called a method in which recognition is carried out using instruments and chemical reagents.

Microscopic the method consists in the fact that the fibrous composition of the tissue is determined by examination under a microscope.

The practical part.

Determine the fibrous composition organoleptically.

Sample # 1: The fabric is homogeneous as it contains only flax fibers. When it breaks off at the end, an elongated tassel is formed from fibers of different length and thickness. When untwisted, it breaks down into long, shiny fibers of various thicknesses. When burning, it smells of burnt grass, burns quickly, the flame is yellow, the fibers burn completely, the ash is gray.

Sample # 2: The fabric is heterogeneous because it has different synthetic fibers in the warp and weft. When broken, the thread breaks down into its constituent fibers. When burning, melt.

2. Definition viewaweaving weaves

Weave determines the necessary interconnection of the warp and weft threads in the fabric and represents the order of mutual overlap of the threads of one system (warp) with the threads of another system (weft).

A different sequence of weaving of warp and weft threads will create a variety of patterns on the surface of the fabric. This is how the weaves shape the look of the fabric.

Warp and weft weaves are usually treated with a face fabric that has the best appearance.

The graphic representation of the weave of the fabric is called weave pattern.

Each cell represents the intersection of warp and weft threads and is called overlap.

The smallest number of threads, after which the pattern or the order of their weaving is repeated, is determined weave pattern (R).

Distinguish weave rapport according to the warp Ro, and weft rapport Ru.

There are 4 classes of weaving weaves: simple or main, small-patterned, complex, large-patterned.

Main weaves

Plain weave. The simplest and most common, in which a weft thread is interwoven with each warp thread. Plain weave fabrics have the same number of main and weft overlaps on the front and back sides. The plain weave pattern resembles a chessboard. Plain weave is widely used for the production of various types of fabric:

in the cotton industry - linen, dress, shirt fabrics: calico, chintz, chiffon, cambric, marquise, etc.

in linen - household and technical fabrics, canvases, tarpaulins, etc.

in silk - poplin, crepe de chine, cream - georgette, crepe - chiffon, etc.

in woolen - woolen fabrics are distinguished.

Twill weave. In twill weave fabrics, the first warp thread overlaps the first weft thread, the second the second, etc. The twill can have a different number in the rapport, but not less than 3 threads.

If weft overlaps prevail on the front side of the fabric, then such a twill is called weft, if the main ones are main.

Twill weaves are used to produce teak, twill, jeans, lining fabrics, mattress and technical fabrics.

Satin and satin weave. These weaves are characterized by a number of features: single overlaps of adjacent threads are located not side by side, as in twill, but with a certain shift. Satin weave forms long weft overlaps on the right side of the fabric. Satin weaves form long main weaves on the right side of the fabric.

Satin weave fabrics are made with the right side down.

The satin weave fabric has an even, smooth and shiny appearance due to the low number of crossing threads.

These weaves are widely used in the production of satin, satin, costume and dress and household fabrics, as well as in the production of patterns on linen tablecloths and bedspreads.

Small-patterned weaves. Small-patterned weaves are the most numerous class of weaving weaves. Such interweaving creates simple patterns on the fabrics in the form of scars, stripes, squares, rhombuses, herringbones, etc. The sizes of patterns usually do not exceed 1 cm. Derived weaves are formed by changing, complicating simple weaves. Thus, by simultaneously strengthening the main and weft overlaps of the plain weave, a matting weave is obtained.

When reinforcing the overlap of the plain weave in the direction of the warp or in the direction of the weft, a rep weave is obtained: the main reps and the weft reps. Linen, cotton, some silk and woolen fabrics, as well as many other things, are produced by linen weave derivatives. The derivatives of the twill weave include reinforced, broken, reverse and complex twill.

The group of small-patterned weaves also includes combined weaves, which are obtained as a result of rearranging overlaps, superimposing one weave on another, adding new overlaps, etc. Most often, crepe, embossed, wafer, translucent, longitudinal and cross-striped weaves are used.

Combined weaves are used to produce costume and dress fabrics, canvas canvases, tablecloths and much more.

Complex weaves. Complex weaves include those weaves that require two or more warp and weft yarn systems to construct. Each of the systems is located one above the other, forming a layer of tissue. Complex weaves are obtained on the basis of main, production and combined weaves. Depending on the structure and method of formation, complex weaves are divided into: one-and-a-half-layer, two-layer, multi-layer, pique, pile, openwork or leno, looped or terry.

Tapestries, terry towels, bedspreads are made with intricate weaves.

Large-patterned weaves. In fabrics with large-patterned weaves, the rapport can be very large, reaching several thousand threads. The use of large-patterned weaves makes it possible to produce large and varied in shape woven patterns, ornaments, flowers, etc. Large-patterned weaves are used to produce tablecloths, napkins, bedspreads, damask towels, decorative, furniture and curtain fabrics and much more. When producing simple jacquard fabrics, main, derivative and combined weaves are used, i.e. one system of warp and weft threads participates in the structure.

Practical part

Pattern # 1: Plain weave, as each warp thread weaves each weft thread. The plain weave pattern resembles a chessboard.

Pattern # 2: The weave is satin, since the single overlaps of adjacent threads are located on the side, and with a certain shift. There are long main overlaps on the right side of the fabric.

3. Odefinition of finish and structurefabric surface

By the nature of the finish, fabrics are:

harsh- without any processing after weaving;

bleached- treated with oxidants containing chlorine or hydrogen peroxide;

plain dyed- painted evenly in one color;

stuffed- with a colored pattern on the front side of the fabric;

multicolored- from alternating colored threads;

melange- from yarn in which fibers of different colors are mixed;

mercerized- treated with a weak alkali solution (NaOH);

boiled- passed a special wet heat treatment.

Depending on the structuressurface front side, fabrics are divided into:

Gnice called fabrics that have a clear weave pattern (calico, chintz)

vors called fabrics that have a split vertically standing pile on the front side (velvet, plush, velor, velveteen);

vossy are called fabrics that have a pile (fleece) on the front side, obtained as a result of naping, i.e. combing out the ends of the fibers of the weft threads (drapes, corduroy, bumazey) onto the surface of the fabric;

valian called fabrics that have passed in the process of finishing - roll and having felt-like covering on the front side (cloth, some coat fabrics).

Depending on the finish of the fabric and the type of its front and back sides of the fabricanor are they divided into:

Equilateral - having the same appearance from the front and back sides. Versatile: a) Double-faced - fabrics with different kind from the front and back sides, but suitable for use on both sides. b) Single-face - fabrics that are made out only from the front side and are not used from the wrong side.

Practical part

Sample No. 1: By the nature of the finish, the fabric is multi-colored, that is, it consists of alternating colored threads; equilateral, since it has the same appearance from the front and back sides; the surface structure is smooth, as it has a clear weave pattern.

Sample No. 2: By the nature of the finish, the fabric is one-colored, that is, it is evenly dyed in one color; versatile, single-faced, since it is made out only from the front side and is not used from the wrong side. In terms of surface structure, the fabric is smooth and has a clear weave pattern.

4. Definition of litzehowland purloh sides

1. weaving defects (knots, loops) are displayed on the seamy side;

2. Printed patterns on the front side are brighter and clearer;

3. the pattern of the weave on the right side of the fabric is clearer;

4. in fabrics of twill and diagonal weaves, the scar on the front side goes from bottom to top from left to right;

5. more expensive threads in the fabric are brought to the front side;

6. the weaving pattern on the obverse is more clearly visible;

7. printed design is applied to the front side;

8. If a smooth fabric is examined by raising it to eye level, then you will notice that the front side is less fluffy, since it is scorched during the finishing process;

9. Along the edge: the edge is better formed on the front side than on the seamy side; punctures from scallops on the seamy side are larger than on the front side.

Practical part

Pattern # 1: Equilateral, used on both sides.

Pattern # 2: The right side of the fabric is shinier and smoother.

5. Location determinationwarp and weft threads

1. the base goes along the edge;

2. the warp stretches less and the weft more;

3. the warp threads in the fabric are thinner and have a greater twist;

4. the density of the warp (the number of threads per 1 or 10 sq. Cm.) In most fabrics is greater than the density of the weft;

5. for fabrics with a fleece and in pile fabrics, the direction of the fleece and pile always coincides with the direction of the warp threads;

6. when examining low-density fabric in the light, you can see that the warp is located more evenly and rectilinearly than the weft;

7. in half-linen and half-woolen fabrics, the base is usually cotton;

8. in semi-silk fabrics, the base is silk;

9. in woolen and cotton fabrics having one twisted system and the other one-thread system, the warp is usually twisted.

Practicali am part

Pattern # 1: the warp stretches less and the weft more; the warp threads in the fabric are thinner and have more twist.

Pattern # 2: the warp stretches less and the weft more; the warp threads in the fabric are thinner and have more twist.

6. Density determinationfabricswarp and weft

Density is understood as the number of warp or weft threads per 1cm 2 or 10cm 2 fabrics.

Density is an essential indicator of tissue structure. Weight, durability, air permeability, heat-shielding properties, rigidity, drape of fabrics depend on density. Each of these properties affects the finished garment, as well as the technological processes of its production.

Practical part

Sample No. 1: I determined the density of the fabric using a weaving magnifier, calculated the density per 1 cm 2. Density on the warp - 15, on the weft - 16.

Sample No. 2: I determined the density of the fabric using a weaving magnifier, counted the density per 1 cm 2. Density on the basis of -18, on the weft - 19.

7. Definition ofagainoopsproperties of fabric

Geometric properties

Length of fabric determine it by measuring in the direction of the warp threads. When laying the fabric before cutting, the length of the piece may increase as a result of stretching. Therefore, fabrics with high elongation should be laid in the flooring using special spreading equipment without stretching.

Width of fabric- the distance between the edges of the fabric. It is determined by measuring in a direction perpendicular to the warp threads. Width is measured with or without edges.

The widths of the manufactured fabrics are varied: underwear 60 - 100 cm; dress 90 - 110 cm; coat 130 - 150 cm.

The quality of raw materials, as well as a violation of the technological modes of fabric production, leads to the fact that a piece of fabric in different areas has a different width.

Thickness of fabric varies widely: from 0.14 mm for very thin dresses to 3.5 mm for very thick coats.

The thickness of the fabric depends on the linear density of the threads (yarn), weave, density, phases of the structure and finishing of fabrics.

The use of high linear density yarns, an increase in the absolute density of the fabric, the use of multilayer weaves and such finishing operations as dressing, roll, nap, increase the thickness of the fabric, while singing, shearing, pressing and calendering reduce it.

The measurement of the thickness of the fabric is carried out on a special device - a thickness gauge.

The mass of the tissue is expressed by the characteristic,which is called surface density. The basis weight varies for different fabrics from 12 to 760 g / m2. The lightest fabrics are gauze and chiffon, the heaviest are overcoat cloths and drapes.

The deviation of the actual surface density from that established in the normative technical documentation is a defect that entails changes in the structure of the tissue. The surface density is an indicator of the material consumption of the fabric and its figure of merit.

Mechanical properties of fabrics

During the operation of clothing, as well as during processing, fabrics are subjected to various mechanical influences. Under these influences, tissues stretch, bend, and experience friction.

Each of these properties is described by a number of characteristics:

- stretching- tensile strength, breaking elongation, endurance, etc .;

- bend- rigidity, drape, wrinkle, etc .;

- frictional change- thread spreading, shattering, etc.

Tensile strength tensile tissue is determined by the load at which the tissue sample breaks. This load is called breaking load, it is a standard indicator of the quality of the fabric. Distinguish between warp breaking load and weft breaking load. The breaking load of the fabric is determined on a tensile testing machine.

The strength of fabrics depends on the fibrous composition, structure and linear density of the threads (yarn) forming it, structure and finish. All other things being equal, fabrics made of synthetic threads have the greatest strength.

Elongation at break or tensile- the ability of the fabric to lengthen under tensile loads.

Breaking elongation is the ratio of the absolute breaking elongation of the specimen to its initial clamping length, expressed in%.

Breaking elongation(absolute and relative), as well as breaking load, is a standard measure of quality.

Endurance- the ability of a tissue to withstand, without collapsing, the action of multiple tensile deformations or the number of cycles of multiple deformations that a tissue sample can withstand until fracture. By endurance, one can judge how the fabric will behave during the production process and during the operation of clothing.

A characteristic feature of the fabrics is their lightweight bendability... The fabrics bend, forming wrinkles and folds, under the influence of a slight load or even their own weight.

The main characteristics of bending are stiffness, drape and wrinkle.

Hardness - the ability of the fabric to resist changing shape. Fabrics that easily change shape are considered flexible.

Flexibility - opposite stiffness characteristic.

The stiffness and flexibility of a fabric depends on the fibrous composition, fiber structure, structure and degree of twist of the yarn (s), type of weave, density and finish of the fabric.

Drapeadaptability-the ability of the fabric to form soft, rounded folds. Depends largely on the flexibility of the fabric.

The drape is related to the weight and stiffness of the fabric. The use of monofilaments, metal threads, highly twisted yarns and threads, increasing the density of the fabric, dressing, finishing with varnish, applying film coatings increase the rigidity of the fabric and, therefore, reduce its drape.

Brocade, taffeta, dense fabrics of twisted yarn, hard fabrics of wool with lavsan, raincoat and jacket fabrics with water-repellent impregnations, fabrics from complex nylon yarns, artificial leather and suede. Massive fabrics of pile weaves, soft flexible massive curtain fabrics, low-density fabrics of flexible thin threads and weakly twisted yarn, flexible fabrics with a fleece, woolen crepe weaves and soft wool fabrics are well draped.

Crease- the ability of fabrics to keep folds in places of bending. The folds and wrinkles formed on the fabric when crumpled not only spoil the appearance of the fabric, but also accelerate its wear. Crumpling spoils the appearance of products and reduces their strength due to frequent wet-heat treatments.

Fabrics made of plant fibers with a high degree of plastic deformation have the greatest crease: cotton, viscose, polynose, and especially purebred.

Fabrics made of animal fibers and some synthetic fibers (polyamide, polyester, polyurethane) crumple slightly and restore their original shape without wet heat treatment.

Crumpling is determined by a manual test for crushing or using special devices. There are instruments for the determination of oriented and non-oriented collapse.

Crumbling- the phenomenon of displacement and loss of threads from open tissue sections. The crumbling rate is higher in fabrics with long overlaps in the weave. The twist of the filaments has an effect on the crumbling, although it does not affect the spreading. Threads with more twist break off more easily.

Large spreading and shattering of fabrics impairs the processes of sewing production, complicates the processing of the material, and increases the consumption of fabric for the product.

Weariness - those. resistance of the fabric to the destructive effects arising from the use of clothing. To assess the wear, the influence, light weather, cleaning, washing, ironing and other factors are taken into account.

Abrasion resistance or abrasion resistance- the ability of the fabric to withstand abrasion (hole formation). The fabric sample is rubbed against a rough surface.

Physical properties

Hygienic it is considered to be the properties of fabrics that significantly affect the comfort of clothing made from them and its heat-shielding properties. Hygienic properties must be taken into account in the manufacture of clothing for a specific purpose. These properties include hygroscopicity, air permeability, vapor permeability, water resistance, dust holding capacity, electrification.

They depend on the fibrous composition, structural parameters and the nature of the finishing of fabrics.

Hygroscopicity characterizes the ability of a fabric to absorb moisture from the environment (air).

The hygroscopicity of fabrics depends on the ability of their constituent fibers and threads to be moistened with water, on the structure of fabrics and on their finishing.

Air permeability- the ability of the fabric to pass air through itself.

It depends on the fiber composition, density and type of finishing of the fabric and is characterized by the coefficient of air permeability Bp. Air permeability depends on the structure of the fabric, its porosity, and the type of finish. All things being equal, plain weave fabrics have the lowest air permeability.

Vapor permeability- the ability of the fabric to pass water vapor.

Vapor permeability is the most important hygienic property of the material, since it ensures the release of excess vaporous and droplet-liquid moisture (sweat) from under the garment layer.

Water vapor permeability is especially important for fabrics with low air permeability. Water vapor permeability depends on the hygroscopic properties of the fibers and threads that make up the fabric, and on the porosity of the fabric, i.e. on its density, the type of weave and the nature of the finish.

Water resistance- the ability of the fabric to resist the penetration of water. Water resistance is especially important for special-purpose fabrics (tarpaulins, tent, canvas), as well as for greatcoats, woolen coats, raincoats and jackets. The water resistance of fabrics is determined by their fibrous composition, structure and the nature of the finish. To increase water resistance and impart waterproofness, fabrics are treated with various impregnations, and various film coatings are applied to their surface.

Dust holding capacity- the ability of materials to retain dust.

Dust holdings spoil the appearance of the fabric and contaminates clothing. Fabrics made of loose fluffy textured threads, loose brushed woolen fabrics, materials with upright pile - velvet, velor, plush, artificial suede, corduroy-like knitted fabrics, etc. have the highest dust holding capacity.

Heat-shielding properties are the most important hygienic properties of winter products. These properties depend on the thermal conductivity of the fibers forming the fabric, on the density, thickness and finish of the fabric. The "coldest" fiber is linen, as it has high thermal conductivity, the "warmest" is wool. The use of thick yarn, an increase in the linear filling of the fabric, the use of multilayer weaves, rolls, and naping increase the heat-shielding properties of the fabric. The highest rates of heat-shielding properties are found in thick, dense woolen fabrics with a fleece.

Optical properties tissues are called their ability to cause a person's visual sensations of color, shine, whiteness and transparency. The color (coloration, coloration) of the fabric depends on which part of the spectrum reflects the surface of the fabric.

Color tone- the main qualitative characteristic of the color sensation, which makes it possible to compare the color sensations of a material sample with the colors of the solar spectrum.

Saturation- a qualitative characteristic of the feeling of color, which makes it possible to distinguish between different degrees of chromaticity within the same color tone. Spectral colors have the highest saturation. Low-saturated colors include pink, light green, blue, etc.

Lightness- a quantitative characteristic of the feeling of color when compared with white. Orange is lighter than red, yellow is lighter than blue. Lightness is directly proportional to saturation. For example, lilac is lighter than purple.

Shine fabric depends on the degree of specular reflection of the luminous flux by it. Shine is directly related to the nature of the surface of the fabric, which is determined by the structure of the threads, their twist, the type of weaving, the nature of the decoration of the front side.

Transparency characterizes the ability of a fabric to transmit light rays, causing the sensation of a light flux passing through the fabric, and gives an idea of ​​the thickness of the material. The transparency of the fabric depends on the transparency of the fibers and threads, the density of the fabric, the presence of through pores in it through which the light flux passes without changing its direction. Low-density and openwork fabrics made of transparent polyamide monofilaments, low-density fabrics made of natural silk (chiffon, crepe-georgette), low-density fabrics made of thin twisted cotton yarn (voile, veil), synthetic crepe fabrics with low linear filling have the highest transparency.

Color- the ratio of all colors involved in the color of the fabric. The color of fabrics can be sunny, cheerful, spring, warm, cold, gloomy, etc. The color of the fabric depends on the tonality, saturation, lightness of the pattern and evokes various associations. The same fabric patterns can have a different color scheme. Drawings on fabrics are divided according to their content, size, shape. According to the content, drawings on fabrics are divided into plot ones, which can be told about; thematic, which can be characterized by the simplest concept (peas, flowers, stripes, cells, beads, etc.), and pointless, i.e. abstract (spots, undefined contours, etc.).

Electrical properties

Electrification- the ability of tissues to accumulate static electricity on their surface.

Electrification is directly related to the nature of the fibers forming the material, their structure, and moisture. With increasing humidity, electrification decreases, since electrical conductivity increases. Synthetic fibers are highly electrifying. Synthetic fiber clothing has negative health effects.

Wear resistance tissues are characterized by their ability to withstand destructive factors.

During use garments they are affected by light, sun, moisture, stretching, compression, torsion, bending, friction, sweat, washing, dry cleaning, low and high temperatures, etc. As a result of the influence of all these factors, the structure of materials changes with a gradual loss of strength up to their destruction ...

Therefore, the resistance of a fabric to abrasion depends significantly on the structure of the surface of the fabric, the structure of fibers and threads, and the finish of the fabric.

Abrasion resistance is characterized most often by the number of cycles of abrasion to destruction - the formation of holes. Abrasion resistance depends on the fibrous composition of the fabric, its surface density, weave, and type of finish.

Fabrics, ribbons, braids, cords made of polyamide threads and fabrics with polyamide fibers have the highest abrasion resistance. Heavier fabrics wear out more slowly than lighter ones.

Under the action of friction, the structure of the materials loosens, in loose materials, the ends of short fibers (especially synthetic ones) slip out on the surface, a kind of fluffiness appears due to the fact that the fibers roll, i.e. a phenomenon called pelling arises.

Pilling capacity- the property of the material to form on its surface the ends of the fibers rolled into lumps or pigtails, called pills. Pilling spoils the appearance of the product and reduces its strength, since the formed pills break off from the surface of the material. Then new pills are formed, i.e. there is a loss of fibers from the material, its thinning.

Low-density fabrics from loose, weakly twisted yarns and from bulky textured yarns, canvas-stitched nonwoven fabrics, drapes and overcoat fabrics with a high content of yarn in the yarn, fabrics from a mixture of fibers containing short polyester fibers have the highest pilling properties.

Practical part

Sample No. 1: has good physical properties, poor electrification, poor pilling properties, wrinkles well, drapes easily, and crumbles poorly.

Sample No. 2: has poor hygienic properties, is not hygroscopic, durable, does not wrinkle, retains its shape after stretching, soft.

8. Technicswork safety

Safety requirements before starting work:

1. put on overalls according to the norms, put them in order;

3. do not wear fluttering clothing;

4. do not wear massive rings and bracelets that can catch on and damage the fabric;

5.examine your workplace, check the availability and serviceability of tools;

6. make sure that the illumination of the workplace is reliable;

Safety requirements during work:

1. the workplace and the aisles to it should be kept clean and not cluttered with spare parts.

2. Materials must be put in metal boxes with tight-fitting lids.

Safety requirements in emergency situations:

1. in the event of an emergency, stop work, immediately inform the master and then execute his commands.

2. when eliminating an emergency, it is necessary to act in accordance with the approved emergency response plan.

3. When lighting up electrical equipment, use only carbon dioxide or powder fire extinguishers.

4. in case of damage to the insulation of electrical equipment, stop work, notify the foreman and resume work only after the damage has been eliminated.

5. in case of injury, stop work, transfer responsibilities to another person, notify the foreman and contact the first-aid post.

Safety requirements at the end of work:

1. fold the tool, inventory in a specially designated place;

2. take off the overalls and put them in the closet.

Conclusion

In the presented examination paper, the topic "Analysis of a tissue sample" was considered, in the process of which the features of two tissue samples were considered.

Based on the results of research and studies, the following conclusions can be drawn: linen fabrics are characterized by high strength, abrasion resistance, sorption and moisture absorption capacity, stable vapor and air permeability, therefore, table, bed and underwear, towel fabrics and towels have long been made from them. Due to their good thermal conductivity, they are indispensable for sewing summer clothes, dresses, shirts, blouses and other products.

In terms of production volume, linen fabrics are significantly inferior to cotton fabrics (linen fabrics account for only about 6% of the total production of fabrics). However, these fabrics are of great national economic importance due to their valuable consumer properties. So, their hygienic properties are unique, providing comfort and preservation of human health. Due to their high aesthetic properties and durability, they are indispensable for many types of household and technical products.

List of sources used

1. Busova N.A., Minenko N.G. Weaving of linen fabrics. Ed. 2 - e, rev. And add. Textbook. [Text] - M.,

2. Gerdeev Vasily Alexandrovich. Weaving and fabric analysis, [Text] - M: publishing house "Light Industry", 1969, p. 120, v. 18,000 copies;

3. Gordeev V.A. “Weaving and analysis of fabrics”, [Text] - M: publishing house “Light Industry”, 1969, p. 120, v. 18000;

4. Granovsky T.S., Mshvenieradze A.S. Structure and analysis of tissues. Textbook for secondary prof. - tech. schools. - 2nd ed., Rev. and add. - M .: [Text] - M: Legprombytizdat, 1978. - 96 pages;

5. Yudenich G.V. Weaving and analysis of fabrics, publishing house "Light Industry", 1968, p. 164.

6. Analysis of a tissue sample [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://academy.crosskpk.ru/bank/6/005/%D0% A1% D1% 82% D1% 80% D0% B0% D0% BD% D0% B8% D1% 86% D1% 8B /% D0% A2% D0% B5% D0% BE% D1% 80% D0% B5% D1% 82% D0% B8% D1% 87% D0% B5% D1 % 81% D0% BA% D0% B8% D0% B9% 20% D0% BC% D0% B0% D1% 82% D0% B5% D1% 80% D0% B8% D0% B0% D0% BB2_2.html -

7. Analysis of a tissue sample [Electronic resource] - Access mode http://russian_french.fracademic.com/26675/analysis of_tissue_sample

8. analysis of tissue structure [Electronic resource] - Access mode http://belspin.vstu.by/files/9913/7154/2771/37.pdf

Posted on Allbest.ru

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Municipal budget educational institution"Aktanysh secondary school No. 2 with in-depth study of individual subjects"

LABORATORY WORK ON TECHNOLOGY 7 CLASS

"DETERMINATION OF THE RAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF TISSUE AND STUDY OF THEIR PROPERTIES"

Prepared by:

Valiakhmetova Zakia Khatmullovna teacher

technology of the highest qualification

Lesson topic: Determination of tissues by fibrous composition and study of their properties

Lesson objectives: 1) learn to determine the type of fiber by its appearance, touch and by the nature of combustion; teach to use knowledge about the properties of fabrics in the manufacture of garments; 2) to systematize the knowledge of students about the properties of fabrics and to help find the relationship between the concepts of “property of fabric” and “purpose of clothing,” 3) education of mindfulness.

Material equipment of the lesson: scheme "Textile fibers",

collection of samples of fibers and fabrics of plant and animal origin, artificial and synthetic. Alcohol lamps, a saucer of water, crucibles for igniting threads, scissors, workbook, pins, tweezers, matches

Handout- for each student, 2-3 tissue samples: report form.

Lesson type: combined.

During the classes.

I. Organization of the lesson.

Checking the readiness of students for the lesson.

II. Updating previously learned knowledge

Conversation on questions:

What natural fibers do you know?

What chemical fibers do you know?

What properties do chemical fibers differ from natural ones?

(How do you think, where does the creation of clothes begin?

What are the criteria for determining the fibrous composition of the tissue? (Appearance, to the touch, burning character).

Why is it necessary to know the raw material composition of the fabric? (For proper care for clothes).

Instructing students on labor protection.

Teacher: all the consumer properties of the fabric are directly related to its raw material composition. Knowing the advantages and disadvantages of the fibers that make up a particular fabric greatly facilitates the process of choosing a fabric for its intended purpose and caring for it. Therefore, we will now listen to your messages.

Student messages (Messages briefly list the properties of each tissue group: plant and animal origin, artificial and synthetic)

III.Laboratory work "Determination of the raw material composition of fabrics and the study of their properties"

We have already studied the properties of all textile fibers, and now in practice we will try to find out how these properties can be determined, since the ability to determine the nature of the raw material of the fabric is necessary for the subsequent work with the fabric at all stages of the manufacture of the product. When choosing a style of clothing, it is necessary to determine its purpose, and depending on this, choose a suitable fabric that meets certain requirements by its property.

The attendants distribute everything necessary for laboratory work (tissue samples, scissors, a saucer of water, crucibles for igniting threads, pins, tweezers.

Induction training.

I invite the girls to familiarize themselves with the laboratory assignment (instruction card).

During laboratory work, students must determine the nature of the raw materials and arrange the fabric into groups, fill out the proposed table. To determine the raw materials, the students use the organoleptic method of recognizing fibers, and during laboratory work they check themselves whether the tissues were correctly divided into groups at the beginning.

Repetition of safety rules.

Safety briefing:

    Ignite thread samples only in a crucible.

    Hold the cut piece of tissue with tweezers over the cuvette, do not let it burn out completely;

    The container with water should be next to the crucible, simmer a piece of cloth in it.

Pull out one thread from the shreds and try to set it on fire with a match and observe the nature of the combustion, write it down.

Current briefing. The teacher makes a targeted walk, checks the correctness of the work, identifies typical mistakes, offers ways to eliminate them, monitors compliance with safety regulations.

Final briefing. Summing up the laboratory work. Show best works.

The ability to determine the nature of the raw material of the fabric is necessary for the subsequent work with the fabric at all stages of the manufacture of a garment. When choosing a style of clothing, it is necessary to determine its purpose, and depending on this, choose a suitable fabric that meets certain requirements in terms of properties.

Physical education

Consolidation of the studied material.

How to determine: what fiber is the fabric made of?

So, let's remember what we learned in the lesson and summarize.

Conclusion: the ability to determine the nature of the raw material of the fabric is necessary for the subsequent work with the fabric at all stages of the manufacture of the product.

And in the next lesson, during laboratory work, you will see in practice what properties are fabrics made from chemical fibers and how to properly care for products made from such fabrics.

The fabric of plant origin (cotton, linen or viscose) will burn quickly, evenly, brightly, the ash will easily crumble, and the smell of burnt paper will remain in the room.

Animal fabric (wool, silk) will burn badly, spreading the smell of burnt horn; a sintered ball will remain at the end of the thread, which just touch it - it will collapse.

A thread of acetate silk smells of acetic acid when it burns, a dark and hard ball forms at the end of the thread.

In these simple experiments, keep in mind that fabrics are often made from blended fibers.

How to care for fabrics? Now let's listen practical advice prepared by our skilled hostesses. Performance of students with pre-prepared messages.

The way of caring for clothes depends on the raw material of the fabric from which it is made. There are international designations for the conditions that must be observed during washing. A set of care symbols is printed on a special tape and sewn on the wrong side. Fabrics made from man-made fibers lose their strength when washed, so fabrics made from these fabrics are washed, by hand or by washing machine, using the “gentle mode” function at a temperature of 30-40 degrees, and after washing, the products are hung without wringing. You can iron these fabrics with a lukewarm iron.

To secure new topic complete the assignments: I give each student a piece of tissue sample: determine the fibrous composition organoleptically and the task to complete the fiber classification.

Students complete assignments, then pass the notebook to a neighbor on the desk for checking. Exercise - mutual control.

Lesson analysis.

The teacher analyzes the lesson, noting the correct organization of the workplace, students' compliance with the rules of safe work, the success of laboratory work, commenting on mistakes. evaluates the work of students.

Homework : in the album, independently compile a collection of fabric samples from various fibers in the size of 5 * 5 cm.

Municipal educational institution

"Peyskoy main comprehensive school, a structural unit of the Novobiryusinsk secondary school "

LABORATORY WORK ON TECHNOLOGY 7 CLASS

"DETERMINATION OF THE RAW MATERIAL COMPOSITION AND STUDY OF THEIR PROPERTIES"

prepared

technology teacher

Leikina Svetlana Andreevna

p. Peya

2014 year

Topic: Lab

"Determination of the raw material composition of materials and the study of their properties"

Goals: learn to determine the type of fiber by its appearance, touch and by the nature of combustion; use knowledge about the properties of fabrics in the manufacture of garments; develop logical thinking.

Equipment: samples of fabrics from wool, linen, cotton, natural silk, silk from artificial and synthetic fibers. A saucer or cuvette filled with water. Crucibles for lighting threads, needle, scissors, workbook, tweezers.

Dictionary: rayon fiber; acetate and triacetate fiber; polyester fibers; polyamide fibers; polyacrylonitrile fibers; elastane fiber.

During the classes.

Organization of the lesson.

    Checking the readiness of students for the lesson.

    Communication of the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Repetition of the passed material.

Conversation of students on the issues:

- What natural fibers do you know?

(Of plant origin, animal origin).

- What chemical fibers do you know?

(Artificial, synthetic).

- What properties do chemical fibers differ from natural ones?

(Hygienic, technological, operational).

- By what signs can you determine the fibrous composition of the fabric? (Appearance, to the touch, burning character).

- Why is it necessary to know the raw material composition of the fabric?

Instructing students on labor protection.

Teacher. As you already said, the raw material composition of a fabric can be determined by its appearance, touch and combustion. During laboratory work, you will determine the fiber composition of six samples. Since during one of the experiments you will have to work with an open fire, the following fire safety rules must be strictly observed.

A) Ignite the thread samples only in the crucible.

B) There should be a container with water near the crucible to extinguish the glowing threads.

In addition, a fire extinguisher must be prepared. Let's remember how it can be activated.

To activate the OP-5 fire extinguisher, it is necessary to break the seal, pull out the pin, press the lever, directing the jet to the fire site.

Laboratory work.

Students receive six numbered tissue samples and determine the raw material for each sample. The results obtained are recorded in the table.

Sample

fabrics

Fabric properties

Shine

Smoothness

Softness

Smina-

bridge

Crumbling capacity

Wet strength

Combustion

Raw material composition of the sample

Matt

Rough

Soft

Strong

Average

Durable

Cotton

Unsharp shine

Rough

Soft

Weak

Strong

Durable

Wool

Faint shine

Smooth

Soft

Weak

Strong

Durable

It bakes in a flame, forming a black crumbling ball

Natural silk

Shiny

Smooth

Soft

Weak

Strong

Strength is decreasing

Burns quickly, forming brown balls

Acetate fiber

Matt

Smooth

Soft

Strong

Strong

Strength is decreasing

Bright flame, gray ash

Viscose fiber

Shiny

Smooth

Soft

Weak

Strong

Strength is decreasing

Melts to form a soft ball

Polyamide fiber

Lesson summary.

Consolidation of the studied material.

Conduct a frontal survey on cards.

Card 1

1. Artificial silk fiber is a fiber:

a) chemical;

b) synthetic.

2. Artificial fibers include fibers:

A) viscose;

B) polyamide;

B) acetate;

D) polyester;

D) silk.

3. Fabrics made of artificial silk fibers have the following properties:

A) do not crumple;

B) shiny;

B) hard;

D) have good heat-shielding properties;

E) do not slip when cutting;

E) crumble a little.

4. Artificial fiber has the following properties:

A) crimped;

B) matte;

B) 3-5 cm long;

D) when burning, the smell of burnt feathers;

D) brilliant.

Card 2

1.Synthetic fibers are obtained:

A) made of wood;

B) oil;

C) plants.

2. You can determine the fibrous composition:

A) by the color of the fabric;

B) combustion test;

C) appearance;

D) to the touch.

3. When a synthetic fiber fabric burns, it forms:

A) gray ash;

B) a solid dark ball;

C) a crumbling black ball.

4. The hygienic properties are better for fabrics:

A) made of cotton fiber;

B) viscose fiber;

B) polyacrylonitrile fiber.

5. The crumbling of sections is stronger in the tissues:

A) made of wool fiber;

B) nylon threads;

B) cotton fiber.

Answers

Cards 1: 1a, 2av, 3b, 4b.

Card 2: 1b, 2b, 3b, 4a, 5ab.

Lesson analysis.

The teacher analyzes the lesson, noting the correct organization of the workplace, students' compliance with the rules of safe work, the success of laboratory work, commenting on mistakes.

Grading, their argumentation.

Homework: In the album, independently compile a collection of fabric samples from chemical fibers.

Used Books:

1. Magazine "Our school" 2006

2. Technology edited by V. D. Simonenko. 7 class. 2009 r.

3. Technology edited by V. D. Simonenko. Grade 5. 2010 year

4. Encyclopedic Dictionary 2011

ID: 2015-07-6-A-5344

Original article

Kalmin O.V., Venediktov A.A. *, Nikishin D.V., Zhivaeva L.V. *

FSBEI HPE Penza State University of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia; * Limited Liability Company "Kardioplant"

Summary

Target: development of a method for chemical-enzymatic treatment of xenopericardium in order to obtain a new material with low bioresorption. Methods. The material for the study was xenopericardium samples processed by standard and modified chemical-enzymatic methods. Some of the xenopericardium samples were examined for mechanical properties. Another part of the samples was implanted in experimental animals. The terms of implantation were 2 weeks, 1 and 2 months. After removing the animals from the experiment, histological examination of the samples was carried out. Results. It was found that the xenopericardial plate, treated by the modified method, has a higher modulus of elasticity, greater strength and less elongation, in contrast to the material processed by the patented chemical-enzymatic method. An increase in strength and elasticity, but a decrease in the elongation of the samples of the experimental group, is associated with treatment with glutaraldehyde at a higher concentration. In this regard, biodegradation and biointegration in samples subjected to standard processing are actively detected already at the end of the first month after implantation, in contrast to the xenopericardium treated by a modified method, in which these processes are manifested by the end of the second month. Conclusion... The study of the deformation-strength properties and micromorphology of the xenopericardial plate at different stages of the experiment confirms that the modernized method of chemical-enzymatic treatment of the xenopericardium makes it possible to create a biomaterial with better elastic-elastic characteristics and characterized by a lower rate of bioresorption and replacement by the recipient's own connective tissue.

Keywords

Xenopericardium, tissue engineering, chemical-enzymatic treatment, bioresorption, mechanical properties

Introduction

O.V. Calmin - FGBOU VPO Penza State University of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, Department of Human Anatomy, Head of Department, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor; A.A. Venediktov- Limited Liability Company "Kardioplant"; D. V. Nikishin- FGBOU VPO Penza State University of the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia, Department of Human Anatomy, Associate Professor, Candidate of Medical Sciences; L.V. Zhivaeva- Limited Liability Company "Kardioplant".

At the present stage of development in reconstructive medicine, one of the most urgent problems is the selection of materials for carrying out reconstructive surgical procedures.

It is well known that an “ideal” graft must meet the following requirements: not lead to an inflammatory response; not to have toxic and immunogenic effects; must retain the declared properties both at the stage of storage and in the body into which it was implanted; have the ability to physiological degradation with the formation of safe decay products; have the required rate of degradation corresponding to the processes of formation of new connective tissue; enable the application of biologically active substances to its surface; must have an effective and versatile sterilization capability; have long shelf life.

The following main types of materials are used most often in clinical medicine for transplantation: autografts, allografts and synthetic materials.

Autografts are the patient's own tissues. This material has a significant plus, it is highly biocompatible, but during surgical procedures with its use, the doctor has to take the material and, as a result, injure the patient, which increases the patient's rehabilitation period.

Allografts are tissues and organs taken from a donor (human). Cadaveric material can be used as a donor. This material is difficult to obtain, because v Russian Federation there are practically no cans with allomaterials. Moreover, such material may carry the risk of contracting various infections, which is unacceptable in clinical medicine.

Synthetic materials are widespread in medical practice, have a relatively low cost, but have a low level of biointegration and are often rejected.

Xenografts are tissues and organs that are taken from animals. Their use began at the end of the 20th century, but they were rarely used due to the imperfect technique for making xenomaterial: the cells remaining in the material triggered an immune response, which contributed to the rejection of implants.

The main cause of antigenicity is xenomaterial cells and glisoaminglycans. That is why, in the preparation process, it is necessary to destroy the cells and remove them from the material. The essence of the most common method of processing xenopericardium, used on this moment(Patent for invention of the Russian Federation No. 2197818 dated October 28, 2008), consists in the fact that the enzyme destroys the carriers of antigenicity, and as a result of tissue treatment with hypertonic sodium chloride solutions, cell fragments are removed from the material. At the same time, the fibers of the connective tissue remain unaffected and retain their structure, and further processing with glutaraldehyde converts the tissue of the xenomaterial into a biopolymer. However, this method is not without its drawbacks and requires further development and optimization.

Target

The aim of this study was to develop a method for chemical-enzymatic treatment of xenopericardium in order to obtain a new material with low bioresorption.

Material and methods

The xenopericardium was taken no later than 20 minutes after the animal was slaughtered. The resulting pericardium was immersed in saline and delivered to the laboratory for further processing. The samples were divided into 2 groups: experimental and control. In each group, 20 xenopericardial samples were examined.

The control group was processed by the standard method (RF Patent No. 2197818 dated 28.10.2008). Experienced group xenopericardium samples were exposed to the action of a proteolytic enzyme under various modes: the treatment time, the concentration of the proteolytic enzyme, the temperature during treatment, the pH level, and the concentration of the cross-linking agent, which served as a solution of glutaraldehyde, were changed. Such a tissue model, being relatively "strongly sewn", should in theory have a reduced rate of biodegradation. At the end of the xenopericardium treatment, histological control of the material was carried out for the presence of cellular elements and the preservation of collagen and elastic fibers of the xenopericardium.

On half of the samples from each group, the deformation-strength properties of the biomaterial were studied. The study was carried out on an INSTRON-5944 BIO PULS testing machine, while studying: maximum load, maximum relative deformation, elastic modulus, tensile stress at maximum load. During measurements, the samples were soaked in physiological saline.

The remaining 10 samples from each group were implanted in experimental animals. During the experiment, the provisions of the European Convention for the Protection of Experimental Animals (1986) were observed. The experimental animals were white Wistar rats weighing up to 260 g. The experimental animals were kept on a normal diet. The experimental model was created by implanting samples of materials in animals under the skin in the interscapular space. The operation was carried out under conditions of sterility under masked ether anesthesia. Subcutaneous cavities were bluntly formed using a sterile spatula. The incision was closed with absorbable suture. The implantation period was 2 weeks, 1 month and 2 months. After the expiration of the terms, samples from each experimental group were removed and histological analysis of the material was performed. Tissue samples were fixed in neutral 10% formalin, passed through a battery of alcohols of increasing concentration, and embedded in paraffin. Paraffin sections 5-7 μm thick were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and by the Weigert-Van Gieson method. Using a microscope with a digital photo attachment, a resolution of 7 megapixels, three photographs were obtained from each histological specimen. Microphotographs were used to study: the state of collagen and elastic fibers; the presence and nature of cellular elements; the presence of newly formed blood vessels; biointegration and biodegradation phenomena; the presence and extent of the inflammatory response.

results

Study of deformation and strength properties. The study revealed that the samples of the xenopericardial plate, processed by patented and experimental methods, have different deformation and strength properties (Table 1).

The elastic modulus (Young's modulus) of the xenopericardium plates in the experimental group was 1.52 times higher than in the control group. On the contrary, the maximum relative deformation of the samples of the experimental group was 1.32 times lower than that of the control. The samples of the experimental group had a more significant strength compared to the control group that underwent a patented treatment (1.36 times). An increase in strength and elasticity, but a decrease in the elongation of the samples of the experimental group, is associated with treatment with glutaraldehyde at a higher concentration. As a result of this treatment, more cross-linking occurs between the collagen fibers. As a result, the collagen network became denser, and the entire xenomaterial becomes stronger and more elastic, but less stretchable.

The stress value at maximum load in the control group did not differ significantly from the same indicator in the experimental group. Consequently, this type of modification of the xenopericardial plate does not have a strong effect on the distribution of forces between the fibers when a load is applied in the form of uniaxial tension.

Microscopic examination.

1. Treatment of xenopericardium using a standard method. The histological examination of the control samples of xenopericardium, which underwent standard processing, showed that when stained with hematoxylin and eosin, no cellular elements were detected; when stained by the Weigert-Van Gieson method, despite the treatment of xenopericardium with aggressive substances and the destruction of cellular elements, the state of elastic and collagen fibers remained unchanged.

In the study of xenopericardium on the 14th day after implantation when stained with hematoxylin and eosin, it was found that in 2 samples there was a mild lymphohistiocytic infiltration (on average by 2/3 of the total thickness of the xenopericardial plate) with the inclusion of epithelioid cells and cells of the fibroplastic series, in 1 sample - moderately expressed lymphohistiocytic infiltration. Moderate cellular infiltration remained around the implanted xenopericardial samples, and the formation of granulation tissue with single newly formed vessels was observed (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Control samples of xenopericardium (a - xenopericardium, treated with the standard method, stained with hematoxylin-eosin, x200; b - xenopericardium, treated with the standard method, Weigert-Van Gieson stain, x400; c - xenopericardium, treated with a modified method, stained with hematoxylin - eosin, x200; g - xenopericardium, treated by a modified method, staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, x400)

Analysis of histological preparations stained according to Weigert-Van Gieson revealed partial destruction of collagen and elastic fibers, which indicates active processes of biodegradation of the studied xenopericardium fragment.

By the end of the first month of the experiment, pronounced proliferative processes were observed in the places where the graft was adjacent to the tissues of the recipient. The xenopericardial plate had a homogeneous structure, along the outer surface it was infiltrated with lymphocytes and histiocytes. The plate was surrounded by a pronounced infiltration shaft. The cellular infiltrate contained plasma cells, lymphocytes, histiocytes, and fibroblastic cells. In the area of ​​contact with the material, lymphocytes and histiocytes predominate, on the periphery of the granulation shaft - proliferating fibroblasts and foci of newly formed collagen. In the area around the xenopericardium, newly formed blood vessels were identified. When staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, the forming own collagen and elastic fibers were revealed.

2 months after the start of the experiment, biodegradation phenomena were observed on the surface of the material. An almost complete ingrowth of its own connective tissue and newly formed vessels was found, a significant decrease in the number of lymphocytes and macrophages in the infiltrate. Fibroblasts actively synthesized the connective tissue framework around the graft. When staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, a large number of newly formed own collagen and elastic fibers was determined. Such changes indicated an active process of biodegradation of the xenopericardial plate and the integration of its own connective tissue into it with further complete replacement of the implant (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Xenopericardium treated by the standard method (a - 14th day, staining with hematoxylin-eosin, x200, b - 14th day, staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, x400; c - 30th day, staining with hematoxylin- eosin, x200; d - 30th day, Weigert-Van Gieson stain, x400; d - 60th day, hematoxylin-eosin stain, x200; f - 60th day, Weigert-Van Gieson stain, x400)

2 . Treatment of xenopericardium by a modified method. Histological examination of control samples of xenopericardium, treated with the modified method, revealed that when stained with hematoxylin-eosin, cellular elements were not detected; when stained according to Weigert-Van Gieson, the state of elastic fibers and collagen fibers remained unchanged, but they had a looser spatial arrangement.

Histological examination of xenopericardium on the 14th day in samples stained with hematoxylin-eosin revealed moderate lymphohistiocytic infiltration: in one sample, encapsulation processes were noted, in other samples leukocytes penetrated by 1/3 of the total plate thickness.

When analyzing preparations stained according to Weigert-Van Gieson, partial destruction of collagen and elastic fibers was noted to the entire depth of lymphohistiocytic infiltration, and collagen and elastic fibers were observed in the thickness of the xenopericardial plate without changes, which indicates weakly active processes of biodegradation of the object under study.

By the end of the 1st month of the experiment, pronounced proliferative processes are noted in the tissue bed of the graft. The graft material had a homogeneous structure and was infiltrated with lymphocytes and histiocytes along the surface. The graft was surrounded by a pronounced infiltration shaft. The cellular infiltrate contained lymphocytes, histiocytes, plasma cells, and fibroblastic cells. Lymphocytes and histiocytes predominated in the area of ​​contact of the patient's own tissues with the implant material, while proliferating fibroblasts and foci of newly formed collagen predominated along the periphery of the granulation shaft. Newly formed blood vessels were found in the reactive zone around the xenopericardium. When staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, the forming own collagen and elastic fibers were found.

After 60 days, the phenomena of biodegradation of the material on its outer surface were detected, and almost complete germination of its own connective tissue and newly formed vessels into the plate was revealed. There was a significant decrease in the number of lymphocytes and macrophages in the inflammatory infiltrate. Proliferating fibroblasts actively formed a connective tissue frame around the graft.

When staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, a significant amount of its own collagen and elastic fibers was revealed. The revealed tissue changes confirmed the presence of an active process of biodegradation of the xenopericardium and the integration of its own connective tissue into it, followed by replacement of the xenopericardium (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Xenopericardium, treated by the modified method (a - 14th day, staining with hematoxylin-eosin, x200; b - 14th day, staining according to Weigert-Van Gieson, x400; c - 30th day, staining with hematoxylin-eosin , x200; d - 30th day, Weigert-Van Gieson stain, x400; e - 60th day, hematoxylin-eosin stain, x200; f - 60th day, Weigert-Van Gieson stain, x400 )

Discussion

The data obtained in the course of the experimental studies show that the xenopericardial plate processed by the modified method has a higher modulus of elasticity, greater strength and less elongation, in contrast to the material processed by the patented chemical-enzymatic method, it is less deformed. An increase in strength and elasticity, but a decrease in the elongation of the samples of the experimental group, is associated with treatment with glutaraldehyde at a higher concentration. As a result of this treatment, more cross-linking occurs between the collagen fibers.

In this regard, biodegradation and biointegration in samples subjected to standard processing are actively detected already at the end of the first month after implantation, in contrast to the xenopericardium treated by a modified method, in which these processes are manifested by the end of the second month. The data obtained confirm the rather high efficiency the use of a modified xenopericardial plate in reconstructive operations when long-term preservation of the mechanical strength of the graft is required.

Conclusion

The study of the deformation-strength properties and micromorphology of the xenopericardial plate at different stages of the experiment confirms that the modernized method of chemical-enzymatic treatment of the xenopericardium makes it possible to create a biomaterial with better elastic-elastic characteristics and characterized by a lower rate of bioresorption and replacement by the recipient's own connective tissue. The results of the study suggest that the use of a xenopericardial implant, treated with a modified method, is more effective for the restoration of the recipient's connective tissue. These xenopericardial plates can be used as an independent plastic material for use in reconstructive operations requiring implants with the indicated properties, and as a matrix for applying stem cells used in genetic engineering.

Conflict of interest. The work was carried out within the framework of the priority direction of research activities of the Penza State University for 2011-2015 No. 4 "Biomedical cluster".

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