How to clean a copper product. How to clean copper products from blackness at home. What Not to Do

How to clean copper from various types of pollution so as not to damage the metal, and so that it shines again? This question is often of interest to modern needlewomen who are engaged in the manufacture of various jewelry made of copper, as well as modern housewives who still use copper cutlery and other kitchen utensils from this metal.

Despite the fact that copper is a rather plastic and wear-resistant material, it is subject to oxidation, therefore, under the influence of moisture, an unpleasant greenish coating appears on the surface of copper cutlery or jewelry. If you cook food in oxidized copper dishes, the products will acquire an unpleasant taste and smell, and will also become unsafe for health.

Also, the surface of copper products may darken, so you need to know how to clean the metal from different types pollution at home effectively and safely.

We clean copper at home

To clean copper at home, it is enough to use the simplest folk remedies. Experienced housewives do not recommend using abrasive household chemicals for metal cleaning, as such products can damage the surface of the product.

Using the example of cleaning a copper Turk, we will show how to easily and quickly clean this metal from green plaque, blackness or dust simply and quickly.

Many are also often interested in how copper can be polished at home. For this purpose, you can use a special paste based on trivalent chromium oxide. The texture of such a paste resembles plasticine. A piece of GOI paste is rubbed on a cleaned copper surface, then the copper product is washed and wiped with a towel. You can polish and grind this metal with tooth powder, but finding such a product is quite difficult.

In the table below, we have collected the most effective and popular folk remedies for cleaning copper products at home.

In order to polish a copper product for preventive purposes, you can use only one cloth, such as wool or suede. If the copper has darkened, then you will have to use additional funds. In the home improvement store, you can find factory-made products that are specifically designed for cleaning and polishing copper and similar metals.

Cleaning copper coins at home is easy, just use one of the methods described above. Also, collectors often polish and clean copper coins in melted laundry soap.

Experienced housewives advise storing copper cutlery in special cases, putting a small piece of chalk there. In this way, products can be protected from oxidation. It is recommended that copper should not be exposed to direct sunlight. It is best not to store copper items near heaters and radiators.

If you often wear copper jewelry, then try to wash and polish bracelets and chains after each use. From prolonged contact with the skin, copper is also covered with a greenish coating. Moreover, such plaque can remain on the skin.

Having studied in detail all the effective cleaning products for copper, now you know how to keep objects and products made of this metal clean at home.

One of the very first metals that people began to use to create household items was copper. It melts easily, beautiful and light. A lot of things were made from it, ranging from dishes and decorations to tools for agriculture.

Means and methods

Over the many years of exploitation of copper, several effective ways cleaning plaque and oxide from its surface. When cleaning any product, you need to make sure that there is no lacquer coating on it. If it is present and not damaged, then you can wash the item using the usual detergent:

1. It is enough to apply a solution of detergent and water in a ratio of 1 to 5 (100 grams of detergent for every 500 ml of water) on the surface of the product.
2. Wait at least 20 minutes.
3. Then simply wash the copper product with a dish sponge and wipe dry.

If the paintwork is chipped or has already lost its integrity, then it is worth removing it completely. This way you will be able to access the copper surface and continue to use the item without coatings. For this you need:

1. Immerse the item to be cleaned in a solution of baking soda and water. The solution is made at the rate of a tablespoon of soda per liter of water.
2. Put the container to boil for 30-40 minutes.
3. If the water boils away, then it is necessary to add the solution to the desired level during the entire boiling process.
4. When the copper object is removed from the solution, the remaining varnish can be easily removed with a stiff brush or cloth.

Fast way cleaning any dishes, including copper, is a solution of clear paper glue and soda ash:

1. We dissolve three cans of glue and a handful of soda ash in 5 liters of water.
2. We immerse the item that needs cleaning there. Boil 30 minutes.
3. Then we take out a still hot thing and sharply dip it into cold water.
4. Any kind of pollution after this procedure will go away easily. It is necessary to additionally wipe the product with a regular sponge or cloth.

You can clean and wipe off the green plaque with an ordinary lemon. For this you need:

1. Cut the lemon lengthwise.
2. Pour a teaspoon of soda on the half of the lemon at the cut site and clean the object with this surface.

The tool works great due to the use of citric acid. If there is no lemon, then experts advise using powdered citric acid. It must be diluted with water to a state of sour cream. Then you need to soak a cloth or toothbrush in the resulting mixture and wipe the copper object with them in a circular motion.

Cleaning with ammonia solution or ammonia can only be carried out outdoors or in a well-ventilated area. This method is good not only for cleaning green patina, but also for darkening copper. Using these tools is quite simple - you need to moisten the sponge with a solution and wipe the copper surface.

Lemon juice or dry citric acid mixed with wheat flour and table salt also gives a good result. It is necessary to dilute all the components with water to the consistency of sour cream and polish the copper with the resulting composition.

Ketchup or tomato paste will also help to quickly clean copper items. To do this, you need to apply them on the surface of the product and leave for 12 hours, then carefully remove with cloth rags.

Since ancient times, kerosene has been used to clean copper objects. This method was especially popular with sailors on long-distance ships. They polished all the copper parts of the ship with kerosene to a shine. A kerosene-based cleaning agent is made very simply: crushed white chalk is poured onto a rag soaked in kerosene, and the copper surface previously moistened with water is wiped with this rag. Shine after the procedure is guaranteed.

Good for cleaning film on copper a mixture of toothpaste and soda, which is rubbed on the surface of the metal. You can also use a mixture of tooth powder and ammonia. The ingredients must be diluted to a suspension consistency. Wet a cloth or sponge with the resulting solution and rub the surface.

Reading with sodium borate:

1. For half a liter of warm water, 50-80 grams of sodium borate and 25 ml of ammonia solution (ammonia) are poured. Everything must be thoroughly mixed.
2. The resulting mixture is treated with a surface that needs cleaning.
3. If necessary, the process can be repeated several times.

Effective for cleaning copper and goy paste. A little paste should be applied to the surface with a felt or felt cloth, then polish the object in a circular motion. This paste is an abrasive material that contains chromium particles.

It will not only remove the film, but also give a mirror shine to the surface to be cleaned.

If the copper product does not contain impurities that can turn black, then sulfamic (another name is aminosulfonic) acid can be used for cleaning. Naturally, when using it, it is necessary to protect the skin and use gloves, as this substance can cause serious burns.

There are other variations of this method. using acetic acid. Vinegar, salt and bran are mixed in equal parts. The resulting mixture is rubbed onto a copper surface.

Samovars, Turks and teapots

The outer surface can be cleaned using the methods described above. But with the inside, the situation is more complicated. This is especially true in cases where limescale is formed in a vessel for boiling water, whether it is a kettle, a samovar or a Turk.

You can use the proven method using potato peels:

1. The washed skins left after peeling the potatoes are poured into the object to be cleaned and poured with boiling water.
2. Then, for about an hour, boil water with skins in a dish to be cleaned.
3. After boiling, drain the contents of the dishes and wash them in the usual way.
4. After the end of the cleaning procedure, it is necessary to boil the water several times in a bowl with a change after each boil. This is done in order to remove the remnants of plaque.

Also works well when cleaning copper utensils vinegar essence 60-75%. The method of application is simple:

1. Pour 300 ml of essence into a cleanable teapot, samovar or Turk.
2. Top up with water (preferably warm) until the volume of the vessel is completely filled.
3. Let the solution stand for about two hours.
4. After that, drain the liquid and clean the vessel with a brush.
5. After that, the product is thoroughly washed with water. This is necessary so that the remaining acid is gone and does not further affect the taste of water.

Zest or citric acid works very well to remove scale from copper utensils. Use either peels from any citrus crops (lemon, tangerine, orange, lime), or the fruits themselves, or just dry citric acid:

1. Depending on the type of cleaning chosen, they are placed in a vessel: skins up to half the volume, chopped fruits in the same amount, or two or three packs of citric acid.
2. It is necessary to ensure that the heated vessel is not full to the brim, otherwise, when boiling, part of the liquid will splash out and stain the surface of the heating device and the vessel being cleaned.
3. It is necessary to boil the contents for half an hour.
4. After that, drain the water, wipe the walls of the product with a brush. If the limescale has not been completely removed, repeat the procedure.
5. After the end of the procedure, you need to boil several portions of water so that the citric acid contained in the fruits of citrus crops is washed out from the walls of the vessel.

The simplest and accessible way cleaning will purchase special means for descaling kettles.

The only thing to remember is that dishwasher and washing machines won't fit. They are too aggressive and can ruin the copper surface being cleaned.

Then we proceed according to the instructions attached to the tool itself. Cleaning copper dishes from scale is no different from cleaning dishes made of other materials. But I would like to make a small remark regarding samovars. It is made up of many different parts. Therefore, it is first advisable to disassemble the samovar and only after that clean it in the way you have chosen.

coins

There are people who collect various coins. Often in collections there are also coins made of copper or copper alloys. They can also spoil the view from time to time.

If the composition of the coin is not pure copper, but also lead, then its surface is covered with a yellow film. You can remove it by immersing the coin in a solution of water and laundry soap. It is necessary to hold the coin there for three hours, then remove it and wipe it to the desired shine with a rag soaked in vinegar.

Copper was one of the first metals mastered by man in prehistoric times. Copper was used to make weapons and tools, household utensils and jewelry.

And all these millennia, people have been faced with the question: how to clean copper products from stains that inevitably appear on them.

Why copper products need to be cleaned regularly

During use and storage, copper products become covered with a dark or green coating. The oxide film is formed as a result of the interaction of the metal with atmospheric oxygen. Heating, using the object outdoors or in rooms with high humidity accelerate the formation of plaque. At the same time, dishes and decorations lose appearance, look messy. In the sailing fleet, most of the metal parts of the ship were made of copper, and there was even such an expression “to scrub a copper.”

In addition, the chemical compounds that make up plaque can have bad influence on human health. Therefore, copper products must be cleaned regularly.

Since ancient times, people have improved cleaning methods, using both mechanical and chemical methods.

Effective cleaning methods

Today, the arsenal of tools that can be used to clean copper has expanded significantly. Together with antique vinegar, sand and wire sponges, a large number of both specially designed tools and adapted by craftsmen. Among the latter, there are quite unexpected ones.

How to clean copper

• Tomato ketchup. Apply a small amount of tasty seasoning on the stain, hold for a few minutes. Wash off with plenty of water.
• In case of light soiling, you can try to wash them with a regular gel-like detergent. The gel is squeezed onto a soft sponge, then applied to a copper object. After a minute exposure, it is necessary to rub the surface and rinse with water.
• It is applied for large items, such as, for example, a samovar. Cut the lemon in half and rub the surface of the product with a half. Next, brush with a soft bristled brush and rinse with water.
• Vinegar dough. Vinegar and ordinary table flour are mixed in equal proportions. Stir until a homogeneous paste-like mass is obtained. Next, the paste is smeared with a thin layer on the surface to be cleaned. After waiting for complete drying, the product is removed with a rag or wooden spatula. After that, the product must be polished with a soft cloth.

If the above methods did not lead to success, apply the following method:

• Prepare a basin or a stainless steel pan.
• Pour vinegar and add a couple of tablespoons of ordinary table salt. Mix thoroughly.
• Immerse the product to be cleaned in the solution and bring to a boil.
• Remove from heat and leave to cool at room temperature.
• Drain the cooled solution, rinse the copper object and wipe dry.

If you decide to clean copper, take precautions. Be sure to wear protective gloves and goggles. If you dilute vinegar essence, then you should ensure the ventilation of the room.

Copper cleaning at home

Copper utensils and jewelry should be cleaned regularly. With regular care, cleaning of copper is carried out by ordinary washing or wiping with kitchen or sanitary gel. If the plaque covers a significant area and is not removed simple means, apply more radical methods of cleaning.

How else can you clean copper

• Citric acid in powder is diluted at the rate of a tablespoon of acid per liter of water. Add a teaspoon of table salt and mix thoroughly. The resulting solution wipes plaque stains using a sponge or cloth. The method is convenient for items that do not fit in the sink: large figurines, door and window fittings, samovars, teapots, etc.
• Black plaque should be cleaned with ammonia. If you have to clean the dishes - be sure to thoroughly rinse the utensils with plenty of water. Ingestion of ammonia into the human body can lead to serious poisoning. In the event that individual spots merge into a continuous layer of plaque, it is better to soak the entire product for one to three minutes.
• A red tint is best cleaned with an ammonia solution with a strength of not more than 10%. Carefully! Ammonia is poisonous. Be sure to provide sufficient ventilation.
• A plaque of yellow and black edema is well cleaned with a mixture based on the usual 9% vinegar. To one part of vinegar take one part of salt and two parts of water. Immerse the object to be cleaned in the solution tank and bring the mixture to a boil. Carefully monitor the disappearance of spots - as soon as they have dissolved, stop boiling and allow the tank to cool. Next, the product should be washed with plenty of water and wiped dry.

Before you start cleaning the entire copper object from oxides, you should check the effect of the cleaning composition in an inconspicuous place or in a small area. If the product works effectively and does not damage the surface, you can clean the entire product.

How to make brass items shine

If you just clean the copper, then the stains will go away, but the thing itself will not shine. A dull surface can be made shiny by one of the following methods:

• Mechanical polishing with a newspaper or typographic leaflet printed in black ink only. The surface should be rubbed until the gloss is restored.
• Rubbing with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid. Precautions must be taken: the room must be well ventilated, the use of protective gloves and goggles or a transparent face shield is mandatory.
• Mix in equal parts food vinegar, table flour and ordinary salt. Stir until the consistency of a thick paste. Apply the paste to the cloth and polish the surface to a shine. At the end of the operation, rinse the object with warm water.

To restore the shine to copper products, you should regularly care for them. Then it will be possible to do without the use of potent chemicals that are hazardous to health.

Causes of plaque on copper

As copper products are used or stored, their luster gradually fades, they begin to become covered with a coating - oxide films. They have the most different shades- from dark green to light blue.

There are several main causes of plaque:

• Due to contact with oxygen in the air, the copper surface is covered with a layer of green patina.
• Copper jewelry darkens when in contact with skin and sweat secretions. If copper darkens very quickly, it may indicate health problems.
• Plaque also occurs with high humidity or direct contact with water.

Craftsmen often intentionally patinate their products, giving them a more antique look. This is the so-called "noble patina"

Purification of copper from white plaque

A coating of white shades is also an oxide film. It often occurs on the surface of copper alloys. Its color is determined by the metals that make up the alloy. Such an oxide layer can be cleaned by the following methods:

• with a low content of other elements in the material of the part, sulfamic acid is used. This potent chemical should be applied with great care, limiting the time and area of ​​exposure. Be sure to carefully follow the security measures.
• A mixture of two tablespoons of salt per glass of whey is made. The resulting composition is rubbed on the surface using a soft cloth. After you have finished cleaning, you must thoroughly rinse and dry the product.
• You can also clean white plaque with ordinary ketchup. A little seasoning is applied to the object, the acidic environment of ketchup restores its original appearance and shine. After cleaning, rinse with plenty of water and wipe dry
• A thick layer of white plaque should be cleaned by boiling in a mixture of table salt and 9% food vinegar. The object is boiled until the plaque dissolves, cool slowly and washed with plenty of cold water.
• Another way to clean white plaque is a mixture of ammonia and powdered chalk. The thick paste obtained after mixing should be applied to the object and rubbed with a stiff brush. At the end of the process, wash and wipe the surface.

To clean copper objects with high quality, you have to spend a lot of time and effort, but brightly shiny products will please the eye.

How to clean copper from black and green plaque

If you want to clean copper from plaque of green and black shades, use the following methods:

• A cloth is moistened with a mixture of oxalic acid, turpentine and ethanol and the object is wiped several times. Ethanol degreases the surface, acid dissolves the oxide layer.
• A mixture of powdered chalk and kerosene is made. Lump chalk should be crushed beforehand. This tool can not only clean, but also polish copper objects.
• Warm soapy water (or other non-abrasive detergent). The product is completely immersed in the solution and wiped with a dense sponge.
• For cleaning copper products, you can also use a special composition for cleaning copper coins and medals Trilon B.

Important: Plaques of black and green shades are harmful to health, kitchen utensils covered with them should not be used for cooking and preserving food.

Cleaning copper from rust

When copper objects come into contact with iron objects, in addition to patina, rust can also appear on them - flaky iron oxides.

Rust can be cleaned with strong acid solutions. The sequence of operations is as follows:

• Prepare two containers of the same size made of ceramic, glass or stainless steel.
• Wear personal protective equipment: goggles or a transparent face shield, gloves and a respirator.
• Pour an aqueous solution of soda into one container.
• Pour an acid solution into another.
• Slowly and carefully, using tweezers or tongs, completely submerge the copper object.
• During the reaction, dark smoke will appear.

Removing rust with cola

In addition to chemicals, Coca Cola can also be used to clean copper products. It contains phosphoric acid. (A good reason to think about whether to drink such a drink)

Copper Refining Precautions

To preserve the health of people and material values, the safety rules must be strictly observed:

• When working with chemically active substances, be sure to ensure ventilation of the room.
• Clothing and footwear should be tight and not leave exposed skin.
• The use of protective gloves and goggles (face shield) is mandatory.
• Do not lean on containers with reagents, especially if there is a violent reaction with the release of gaseous products and splashing.
• To avoid scratching the surface, do not clean copper products with hard metal wire brushes and coarse abrasive materials.
• There is no need to keep objects in acidic solutions for longer than necessary - in addition to the oxide layer, it is fashionable to dissolve the product itself.
• Valuable figurines, coins and decor items should only be cleaned with mild detergents. It will not be superfluous to consult with experienced specialists.

Timely and regular care will allow you to maintain a beautiful appearance, true color and radiant shine for many years.

Clean copper and products from it are sometimes quite difficult. And all because you need to know how to clean copper so that it looks as clean as possible.

Nowadays, copper products have not lost their popularity. It's all about their durability: copper jewelry and cutlery can last much longer than products made from other metals. But sometimes copper can fade and lose its hue, becoming stained. It is impossible to prevent this process, but it is quite possible to return the products to their original form. In our article, we will tell you all the ways by which you can clean copper at home.

The first step is to make sure that your product is made of copper, and not from another metal. This is necessary in order to know exactly which method should be used to clean the item, since the methods presented in our article are only suitable for cleaning pure copper. You can check this in this way: find an ordinary magnet and attach it to the surface of the product. If it is magnetized, then this product is not made of copper, but of some other alloy.

After making sure that it is copper that you will clean now, choose any of the methods below to clean copper yourself at home.

Cleaning methods

There are some of the most popular folk ways for cleaning copper and we presented all of them in the form of a table.

I would like to add that even if you take care of copper products very carefully, over time they will still lose their original appearance, so you still need to clean copper products regularly.

Often there are situations when you just need to know how to clean copper at home. Copper alloy is used in many industries: in the manufacture of kitchen utensils, minting coins, the production of electronic parts, the manufacture of elegant jewelry and other useful items. Given all the variety of products and objects made of this alloy that surround us every day, it is necessary to be puzzled by a similar problem from time to time. And in this article we will tell you how to solve it.

Features of copper

Copper has excellent properties, which is why it is so widely used:

Thus, the products are not only beautiful, but also have a beneficial effect on human health.

During the operation of kitchen appliances or other items made of this alloy, in contact with oxygen or heat, a green coating forms on copper. Unfortunately, it is impossible to prevent the occurrence of plaque. But there are proven means to clean copper at home. In this article you will find effective methods, which will help restore the brilliance and original purity of objects. They will not take much time and “will not cost you a pretty penny”.

Methods for cleaning copper from oxides

There are many ways to restore a beautiful appearance to copper products. The following are the most effective and easy to use. To clean copper oxide at home, you do not need special tools or solutions. Almost all ingredients for cooking effective remedy you will find at home.

Important! Regardless of which cleaning method you choose, read the instructions for use and test the product on an inconspicuous area of ​​the surface of the object.

soap solution

The most common copper cleaner in most forums and among experienced housewives is a soap solution. With it, you can easily remove simple dirt from the surface. For this:

1. Pour warm water into a small container, add detergent to it.
2. Take a dishwashing sponge or a clean piece of cloth, soak it in the solution and wipe the stained areas.
3. Rinse off soap residue with clean running water.

Important! If you are cleaning oversized copper items, you can put them in a soapy solution for a while. So you will be less with my own hands rub the contaminated surface, wasting your time and effort, and the result will be no less high quality.

Lemon juice

Many do not know how to clean a copper basin, precisely because of its size. After all, it is very problematic to find a container that exceeds the size of the basin, and allows you to completely place the dish in the cleaning agent. In this case, it is necessary to know the method in which the raw material is applied directly to problem areas. To do this, you can use lemon juice or just a slice of lemon.

Mode of application:

1. Squeeze lemon juice into a small bowl.
2. Moisten a cotton swab or gauze with freshly squeezed juice.
3. Rub the copper basin until the dirt is gone from the surface.
4. Rinse off any remaining product under running water.

Important! If there is no desire to squeeze juice from a lemon, it is enough to treat the contaminated surface with a slice of lemon.

Ketchup

Do not be surprised, it is with the help of ketchup at home that you can clean copper objects. Thanks to the components that make up ketchup, your products will acquire a mirror shine and crystal clearness.

How to apply:

1. Choose a container based on the dimensions of the copper object.
2. Pour the required amount of ketchup into it.
3. Place the product in the liquid and leave for a while.
4. Rinse off any remaining ketchup with warm water.

Important! It is best to use this method for cleaning small items, such as jewelry.

Vinegar

Looking for effective method how to clean copper from oxide at home? A proven tool with which defects of this nature are easily eliminated is table vinegar. If suddenly you didn’t find it in your kitchen, then buying liquid in the grocery store will not be difficult.

Important! This method is suitable for cleaning oversized copper products.

Mode of application:

1. In a small container, prepare a weak vinegar-water solution, given the proportions of 1: 1.
2. Add 2 tablespoons of salt to the resulting liquid and mix thoroughly so that all the grains dissolve.
3. Put the solution on the fire and bring to a boil.
4. Dip the contaminated object into the boiling agent.
5. Boil for 10-15 minutes.

Important! Depending on the degree of contamination, the boiling time can be increased.

1. Take out the cleaned product and let it cool down.
2. Rinse the item in cold water, dry with a soft towel.

How to clean copper coins?

Probably, each of us at home can find old, unattractive, brown-coated coins. Such products can simply be thrown into the trash can, but collectors look at the situation in a completely different way. If the coins have darkened from years of storage, try the following simple ways how to clean copper to a shine. Without much effort on your part, you will restore crystal clearness to expensive coins.

Acetic acid

Quite often, plaque forms on coins. yellow color. Such defects are typical for products that are stored in the wrong conditions or near objects made of lead. You can clean copper coins from yellow plaque on the surface by cooking at home light conditions acetic acid:

Ammonia

To clean to a shine the copper from which the coins are made, ammonia will help you. You can buy it at any pharmacy in the absence of the drug in the home first aid kit. This tool will help get rid of the red tint that appears on products due to long storage.

Mode of application:

1. In a shallow container, prepare a solution of ammonia. To do this, mix it with water in a ratio of 1:5.
2. Put the coins in the resulting mixture, leave for a while.
3. As soon as the liquid acquires a reddish tint, you can get copper products.
4. Rinse off the rest clean water and wipe the coins dry.

Lemon acid

Green plaque on copper is formed when coins are stored for a long time in a box or other package into which air does not enter well. In such a situation, it is best to use citric acid. Under its influence, plaque will disappear from the surface of the coins right before your eyes:

1. Depending on the number of coins, prepare the necessary container.
2. Stir citric acid in water at room temperature, maintaining proportions of 1:10.
3. Dip copper coins into the resulting mixture, leave for a few minutes.
4. After the liquid turns greenish, remove the coins.
5. Rinse items with cold running water.
6. Wipe the coins dry and polish a little to give them a shine.

Important! Before cleaning any old coins yourself, try to find out their value. If the product is valuable, it is impossible to remove the natural coating of patina, which appears on this alloy after a certain time, and it is precisely this that indicates the origin and storage conditions of the numismatic jewelry.

Restoring shine to copper objects

In the process of using copper objects, they lose their crystal luster and begin to look dull, dull. You already know how to clean a copper basin and other items made from this alloy. And the following methods will help restore the original shine to jewelry and pots.

Method number 1:

1. Prepare the remedy by mixing flour, salt and vinegar in equal proportions.
2. Mix thoroughly.
3. Rub the mixture on the products that need to be shined.
4. Finally, rinse the items with cold water and dry them.

Method number 2:

If copper products are not cleaned in a timely manner, the metal will become covered with a dark coating, lose its luster, and as a result, the surface will become cloudy. Now you know how to clean a copper basin at home, restore a sparkling look to coins and return copper jewelry to its former glory. beautiful view. All methods are not laborious and not expensive, and the effectiveness of the methods allows them to be used by both housewives and highly qualified specialists in factories.